Guilty Until Proven Innocent At Salem Witch Trials History Essay

In the 14th through 16th centuries and estimated 40 thousand people were executed for the crime of witchcraft and according to believers, it cam straight from the Bible in Exodus 22:18 which says Thou shall not suffer a witch to live. The Bible is the word of God and is infallible and believers had to live by it. Despite this strong belief in the Bible, early Christians were quite tolerant of Paganism and even witchcraft but as the Roman Catholic Church began to consolidate its power, heretics were looked at as the enemy.

By 1231, Pope Gregory the 9th instituted the inquisition which was designed to expose and punish heresy. That’s when the attitude towards witchcraft began to change and take on a more acceptable, violent attitude.

In 1484, Pope Innocent the 8th declared being a witch or a magician a crime and approved severe measures of punishment and ultimately death if a person was found to be either. All of the problems, from bad crops to bad weather, were blamed on witches and magicians. Witch hunts were usually conducted by the superstitious villagers as tensions grew amongst them and they use these witch hunts as a power tool to get rid of people they had issues with, real or imagined, with the authorities doing little or nothing to stop it.

Although the authorities were encouraging the locals to separate and rid themselves of witches, which caused them to turn on each other as they pointed out each other as witches, a witch hunt didn’t mean that people showed up at your door, knocked, and politely asked if there were any witches in the house. Once a person was accused of being a witch, they still had to provide some evidence in order to prosecute. The question was then, how do you prove that someone has cast a spell? The authorities needed some sort of tangible evidence such as test and signs that they were witches. In 1486 Heinrich Kramer, an Inquisitor of the Catholic Church, published a guidebook on finding witches called the Mallei Maleficarum (Hammer of the witches). It stated that the sure signs of a witch were the devils mark or witches teats. This involve the physical inspection of a suspected persons body and was conducted only after shaving all of his or hers hair off, including the public area. It told frightening stories of women who would have sex with demons, kill babies, and even steal penises. It basically gave the definition of witchcraft as well as how to investigate, try and judge cases.

The idea of the devils mark was and an folk tail which was based in the idea that a witch had made a pact with the devil and because of that, he marked her body and gave her teats so she could suckle demons and evil spirits so if a person could find these marks, you could prove, with tangible evidence, that the person was a witch. They would then test the mark by piercing it with a needle or a pin and if pain were felt or the mark bled, there was not enough evidence the person was a witch. If, however, after poking the mark with a pin or needle the person did not fell pain or there was no blood, it was the acceptable view that the person might, in fact, be a witch. Another method was called swimming a witch and the theory was that water was pure and it would reject the evil in the witch causing her to float so an innocent person would sink. Needless to say, this test always ended with a victim. The Hammer of the Witch also encouraged torture as a way to get the accused person to confess to being a witch and also always ended in the death of the accused and was justified in the eyes of the law.

English magistrates considered witchcraft a crime against the Church and the State. From Henry the 8th forward, the King is the head of the Church meaning the political leader is also the head of the Church of England so when you turn your back on the God and the church, you are also turning your back on your King. This made witchcraft an act of treason and a capital offense. Witch hunts continued through the 17th century with neighbors accusing neighbors as thousands were murdered.

In 1629, King Charles the 1st of England granted a group called the Puritans a charter to settle and govern in English colony in Massachusetts Bay. Their goal was to create a new and more perfect society based on the principles of the Bible with no separation of church and state. The Puritans remained British citizens and continues to believe that witches existed. This idea of the existence of witches was central to their belief system and they thought about it on a regularly and were genuinely worried about witched living among them. It was no surprise that the Puritans engaged in witch hunts just as they had in England.

The first witch trial in Massachusetts was not in Salem but was actually in Charlestown in 1648 when a midwife and healer named Margaret was accused of witchcraft. It was believed that she could cause death and sickness with just her touch, foretell the future and that she had a witches teat. She was hanged in 1648 and although other cases followed, it would be 40 years before a witch trial would get widespread public attention. In 1688 four Boston children were presumed to be possessed by Goodwife “Goody” Ann Glover. She was an Irish slave sold to Oliver Cromwell in the 1650’s and her husband dies there. She moved to Boston where she becomes employed as a housekeeper. At some point, four of the five children became sick and their doctor found "nothing but a hellish Witchcraft could be the origin of these maladies."(SITE HERE) She was arrested, tried and convicted as a witch and sentenced to hang.

The investigator for this particular case was Cotton Mather, a Boston Minister, who wrote a book titled Memorable Provinces, in which he describes in detail the behavior of the witch and the possessed children. This particular book was believed to have had a huge effect on the people of Salem. About 500 people lived in Salem and they had strong religious practices. Add to their beliefs the circumstances in Salem at the time and you have a village that is ripe for conducting witch hunts of its own. At the core of the Puritanism was a strong belief that women were to be docile as mothers to their children and as servants to their husbands. They had the idea that a woman was submissive and simply by her very nature, a woman was more likely to enlist in the devils service. They were not allowed to be Ministers and therefore were more likely to join the devils cause.

One of the most traumatic events of colonial America was the witch hunt 1692. The documents such as arrest warrants and death orders from that time show about 160 cases of accusations but there are no transcripts of the actual trials. Historians pieced together from other, outside documents, what they believed lead up to the trials. It is believed it started in the kitchen of the Reverend Samuel Parris. In the winter of 1691 Reverend Parris were spending time away visiting people in the parish and so they left their daughter Elizabeth, who was nine, and her cousin Abigail Williams, who was 11, in the care of an Indian woman named Tituba. As she began to speak of her childhood she would share stories with the girls of magic and power. She even began to show them some tricks. The girls, even in their young age, knew this was something that she should not be doing and that they should keep quiet about. Well as the stories kept flowing, her audience grew to six more girls who would come to hear them. The girls then began to do things, such as scream out, attempt suicide, and throw things against walls, which brought concern from Reverend Parris so he had the doctor come examine them. The doctor found no physical symptoms and concluded this must be spiritual and under the evil hand of witchcraft. Because of the Puritans belief in witches, this was readily accepted because they believed that witches could convince other to become witches and interpreted the girls’ actions as physical attempts to fight to prevent themselves from becoming witches. At this point, the girls were pressured to indentify the witch whom had infected them and they eventually pointed out Tituba and because she was a slave, there would be no one that would stand up for her. The girls also pointed out two other women Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne, this too was believable since neither one of these elderly women attended church.

On March 1, 692, the women were brought before an informal tribunal in order to establish if there was evidence of witchcraft. One significant difference between these court proceedings and our system today is the lack of involvement of lawyers. The accused was there were more depositions taken straight from accusers of crimes and a defendant was left trying to defend themselves against questioning from the judges.

The kind of evidence the Magistrate allowed in these proceedings played an important part in the trials that followed. All of a sudden they were willing to accept evidence that they would have never considered in previous witch trials in New England.

The most damaging decision of all was to allow spectral evidence, meaning the accused appeared only to the accuser in either some form or that of a specter that only the accuser could see. The girls began claiming they saw this with Sarah Good and that her specter tried to convince them to write in her book. With each denial from Sarah, the girls would cry and scream, claiming her specter was actually attacking them in the court. Needless to say, this was perceived as evidence that Sarah Good was in fact a witch. It would be the testimony y of Tituba that would change the course of the trial as she confesses almost immediately to doing witchcraft. Over the next three days, she would tell tales of talking animals and spectral visits to harm the children. She was basically telling them what she thought they wanted to hear. She told of a tall man from Boston who who told her to write her name in the devils book in blood. She was asked how many names were in the book. She told them nine names were in the book. Hers, Sarah Good, Sarah Osborne and six names she could not see. This shook everyone because it meant that there were more witches in the village. In this atmosphere the accusations began to spread, but now the girls were not just accusing women from lower standard, but now, no one was exempt from being accused.

It wasn’t until a matronly woman named Rebecca Nurse, who hardly fit the image of a witch, was accused did Salem begin to split on the issue. Most of those who supported her were from the East, had more liberal views and were better off financially. In general, accusers were of lower status and lived in the Western part of Salem. 30 people signed a petition attesting to her character.

The youngest person to be accused was Dorcus Good, the daughter to Sarah Good. It became clear at this point that something needed to be done as so the witch hunts moved from statements and depositions to official trials. The trails continued much as the preliminary hearings had with judges accepting testimony and spectral evidence as fact and the girls continued their finger pointing. They loved the attention they ere getting in a time and place when women had now voice. Here they were, having the ears and attention of men hanging on their every word. The authorities did not check the validity of their accusations and even more people were sent to their deaths.

Eventually the girls began to accuse people who not thought of to be witches such as men, children, ministers and the upper class. Rumors began to circulate that they were going to accuse the wives of Reverend Mather and Governor Phips, and with that, the girls had gone too far. The Governor dissolved the court and moved the trials to Superior Court. Spectral evidence was no longer allowed and the remaining people were acquitted. Tituba was sold back into slavery as a way to pay her expenses.

Five years passed before the Salem community recognized its mistakes and on January 16, 1697, they held a public fast and all twelve jurors signed a petition as a public showing of their repentance. There were other significant dates that followed. In 1702 a modest inquiry into witchcraft was published by John Hale that expressed one of the most profound apologies. In 1706, Ann Putnam Jr, blamed the devil for her actions in taking innocent lives. She was the only accuser to ever apologize. In 1711 the Commonwealth on Massachusetts reversed the verdicts of 22 of the 31 people convicted, restoring their civil rights. The state paid 600 pounds in restitution to the survivors and their families. It wasn’t until 1957 that the remaining nine sentences were reversed.

There are several things about this have repeated itself throughout history and even in today’s society where fear and ignorance overshadows reasoning and common sense. These events had a profound effect on the nation’s justice system causing it to never again presume someone guilty until proven innocent.

Famous American Trials. (2010). Retrieved September 17, 2010 from Salem Witch

Trails: http://www.law.umkc.edu/?faculty/?projects/?ftrials/?salem/?salem.htm.

Salem Witch Museum. (2010). Retrieved September 17, 2010 from Salem Witch

Trails: http://www.salemwitchmuseum.com/?education/?index.shtml.

Goody Glovers. (2010). Retrieved September 17, 2010 from Goody Glovers Story:

http://www.goodyglovers.com/?history.html.

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The Roles Function Organisation Of Imf Wto Wb Economics Essay

This essay aims to analyse and evaluate the impact of three international institutions namely, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in securing global health and wellbeing. Their legitimacy and accountability have attracted a lot of debate and criticism. In the essay, the roles, functions and organisation of these institutions will be discussed followed by critique relating to presentation, influence and impact on global health/wellbeing and finally concluding with a critical evaluation and considerations of possible alternatives and improvements.

Ideas of Harry Dexter White of United States and the British economist John Maynard Keynes led to the establishment of the IMF which began its operations on the 1st of March 1947 in Washington D.C. Its purpose was to rebuild the international economy and prevent the economic crises such as the Great Depression. Membership to the IMF is voluntary and a country has to deposit a “quota subscription” which determines the voting power of that country and also how much that country could borrow from the fund in terms of financial crisis. The highest decision-making body in the fund is the Board of Governors who are not involved in the day to day running of the Fund and they meet once yearly. Currently with a membership of 187 countries the IMF provides systematic mechanisms for foreign exchange transactions in order to promote balanced global economic trade. The IMF advises and focuses on member countries’ macroeconomic policies to ensure its own wealth and that of its members are safeguarded.  It does surveillance of the member countries policies to ensure they do not have a negative effect on the exchange rates and trade markets. The IMF also does periodic consultations to check member countries overall economic positions and advises them on how to improve their economy. It also provides loans to countries that have problems with their balance of payments, (www.imf.org). The loans have conditions attached to them and the borrower countries must implement the economic reforms as determined by the IMF. These structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) are meant to help the countries to overcome the problems of their balance of payments (Driscoll, 1996).

The World Bank was established in 1944 to play a role in the reconstruction of post-war Europe.  It has a similar governance structure as the IMF, with a board of Governors with representatives from all member states as the highest decision-making body and the voting system is the same as that of the IMF. America holds the largest share of votes and the president is also by tradition a US citizen (Peet, 2003).  The World Bank group consists of five organizations but only two are usually referred to as the World Bank. For the purpose of this essay we will restrict our attention to these two. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBDR) provides long term loans and aid for economic development. It is financed from the sale of bonds on international finance markets and from interest gained from loan repayments. The International Development Association (IDA) focuses on giving credits and grants to poor countries. These interest free grants attract a 0.75 percent administrative charge per annum and are aimed to assist programmes of economic growth, reduce inequalities and improvement of living conditions.  IDA is funded from contributions from richer member countries and from income earned from IBDR financing. Like the IMF, the World Bank has conditions attached its loans (Global Health Watch, 2005-2006). The bank also provides technical assistance on development issues. It provides knowledge through education and analytical services. Since its establishment, the World Bank has become more engaged in issues of institutional and policy change in borrowing countries.  The bank defines what would be the best development approach on different projects at a particular time. Currently the Bank defines its mission as reducing global poverty by helping member countries through ensuring economic growth by “capacity building” and helping to create “infrastructure” (www.worldbank.org)

The WTO was established in 1995 as a successor to the previous General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which was established in 1947 after failed attempts to establish an International Trade Organisation (ITO) that would regulate trade. The idea of the ITO was discussed at the Bretton Woods Conference as necessary to complement the World Bank and the IMF. Due to the nature of the policies of the ITO, the US was not willing to commit itself to trade policies which would compromise its power thus efforts to establish the ITO failed (Peet 2003). The WTO’s function is to promote free and fair trade between member states with a view of promoting economic prosperity and contributing to international peace. This is achieved through the administration of trade agreements and acting as a forum for trade negotiations, helping to settle trade disputes, reviewing national trade policies, providing assistance to developing countries in trade policy issues through technical assistance and training programmes and cooperating with other international organisations such as the IMF and the World Bank, (www.wto.org). Unlike the IMF and the World Bank, the WTO is a more member-driven organisation where all major decisions are made by member states by reaching a consensus and the Secretariat has very limited powers. The WTO operates a one country one vote system. Members of the WTO agree to abide by the rules of the organisation.

Criticisms on IMF and the World Bank originate from their policies which many argue promote neoliberalism. Transparency on the functioning of the institutions has also been questioned. Governance of the two institutions is dominated by the industrialised countries mainly the G8. Due to their voting power, the industrialised countries act without much consultation with poor /developing countries who are underrepresented in the two institutions. As such, poor countries influence in policing change is limited, (www.brettonwoodsprojcet.org ). The Bank and the IMF have also been accused of promoting the top-down approach in development which has made them to be regarded as the experts in the field of financial regulation and economic development. Their prescriptive rules are viewed by many as able to undermine or eliminate alternative perceptions on development therefore are not always beneficiary to the recipients (Baum 2008).  

The IMF and the World Bank’s policies have had negative economic and social impact on many countries that have had financial assistance from them. They impose conditions on their loans based on what is termed the “Washington Consensus” which is criticised by many as a neoliberalist approach of trade liberalisation and development, investment and the financial sector, deregulation and the privatisation of nationalised industries and conditions that are not flexible to individual countries circumstances. The prescriptive recommendations by the World Bank and the IMF fail to address the economic problems within countries thereby promoting massive global economic inequalities (Darrow 2003:76). While it is argued that individual nations are responsible for their own social and economic policies, national policies are overridden by the conditions of the SAPs thereby leaving such countries indirectly losing their governance to the World Bank or the IMF (Peet, 2003). The introduction of the SAPs forced countries to enter the global market where they are struggling to survive due to its competiveness.

The emphasis on privatisation by the Bank led to a lot of job losses and states losing control of the provision of essential goods and services such as health care and education resulting in the collapse of such services. The market-driven approach to health services led to the commodification of the services leaving them unaccessible to many as they could not afford to pay for them (Darrow 2003).  Although the overall global life expectancy over the past century has increased, in developing countries that were affected by the SAPs, especially sub-Saharan Africa, the life expectancy decreased dramatically in some countries to as low as 36. This decline in life expectancy is attributed to the rise in poverty and the rise in infectious diseases such as the HIV/AIDS pandemic (WHO 1996). The rise in HIV/AIDS is also arguably linked to the SAPs in the sense that the  introduction of user fees on infectious diseases, people only accessed health services only when they showed symptoms and even still not all could access the services as they could not afford them (Rowden, 2009:148)

Baum, (2008) supported by Rowden (2009) argue that the influence of the World Bank in health issues as seen in its 1993 and 2004 reports, saw the WHO and UNICEF losing their positions as the International Public Health leaders, to the bank. They argue that the WHO’s primary care policies were overshadowed by the market-driven ideologies that led to the commodification of the health services and the increase in donor aid. The bank’s influence led to the promotion of a top-down approach which regards it as the expert in health issues at the expense of the indigenous knowledge. Such ideologies also promote the influence of imported culture which may not be appropriate for the communities, Farmer, (1999:35). The Bank has also been criticised for the types of projects it funds many of which are said to have social and environmental implications for the affected areas, (Nagel 2004).

The shortage of essential medical and drug supplies and personnel as state expenditure was reduced has led to the monopolising of the world’s trade in drugs, (Greenland, Labonte 2007).  SAPs also adversely affected food security as food subsidies were withdrawn, price supports for goods removed and prices rose, (www.fao.org). National laws such as those that protect health, safety, environment, industries and farming have also been affected by the interference of the global institutions in domestic policies of individual countries. Small industries and farmers are greatly affected as their products are undermined by cheaper imports. The free markets have also increased the monopoly of corporations at the expense of the indigenous knowledge and wealth of the poor causing uneven distribution of wealth therefore creating a wide gap between the rich and the poor countries, Global Health Watch, (2005-2006).

Although the WTO appears to be a more democratic organisation, debates on its transparency formulate from that it as a more closed organisation where many meetings are informal. These informal meetings are crucial before negotiations reach the more formal levels before a consensus can be reached between member countries. Although all member states are formally equal, in the fact that they all have the same opportunities regarding their voting power, the WTO is to a large extent controlled by the G8 while others have very limited influence and ability to keep up to date with all issues, (Global Health Watch, 2005-2006, Baum, 2008:101). The free trade agreements have negative effects on poor countries as they struggle to match the markets from developed countries. As the labour markets were deregulated, a lot of jobs were lost leading to massive increase in unemployment consequently leading to an increase in poverty. According to the WHO, over one fifth of the world’s population is living on less than two dollars a day. Furthermore the health expenditure in countries affected by SAPs declined to $13 per capita compared to the WHO’s recommended $32 per capita, (Rowden, 2009).

The three organisations have taken cognisance of some of the criticisms and debate over their legitimacy and accountability. They have demonstrated an increase in transparency through publication of policies and research which have contributed to effectiveness especially the Bank. It has improved on the way it is working with NGOs and also considered the environmental concerns of its project although some argue that there is still a lot be done in that area, (Peet, 2003). Pressure exerted on the Bank made it to reconsider its position against the universal ARV treatment. The IMF and the World Bank cancelled debts of some the poor countries. The three organisations have a lot of input in the road to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, there are arguments that the MDGs alone do not address the issues of global political economic systems where rather than countries relying on donor aid; countries should be able to finance their own people’s needs using their national policies (Rowden, 2009).

Critics of the World Bank, IMF and the WTO are calling for a transformation of the global governance from neoliberalism towards governance that promotes policies that empower individual states to be responsible for their economic development. Ranges of ways on how this could be achieved have been suggested such as radical reform through collective action by different groups and organisations, decommissioning of the institutions, participation of representatives from different parts of the globe during global meetings. The representatives should be well-equipped with detailed knowledge and alternatives to policies. The NGOs have been praised and encouraged to continue with their contribution in the fight for fair global governance and some of their efforts have yielded results, (Peet, 2003; Rowden, 2009; Greenland, Labonte, 2007; Baum, 2008).  

Despite the criticisms on the World Bank, IMF and WTO, their role in securing the health and wellbeing of the world’s population is essential but there is need to address the way their policies have deviated from their original purpose to neoliberal market driven ideologies that promote the interests of a handful of countries at the expense of the lives of thousands of people who die everyday due to such policies. Similarly other international institutions responsible for health and development such as the WHO and the United Nations should also ensure that their primary aims are not being compromised by such policies.   

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Economy In Mid 1700s Britain History Essay

 

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the mid-1700s first in Britain and later in Western Europe, is the most significant collection of technological, social, and economic changes in human history.

There is a lot of speculation as to why the Industrial Revolution occurred first in Western Europe, especially in Britain. Historians point to a number of factors. Built upon the economic and cultural developments of the Renaissance, Europe was already relatively wealthier than other regions of the world, thus providing the needed capital for investment in new technologies. Europe was full of competition at the time, each country wanting to be the best.

The Industrial Revolution saw through the change from manual labour to mechanical devices due to a multitude of technological advancements. We can see this mostly where steam power took over man power. Applied first in coal mining and textiles, the new techniques, new machines, and new methods rapidly spread into other industrial areas. One of these advancements was the use of steam to power transportation devices. This increased the railroad system’s efficiency and reliability, bringing the nation together into one whole market, introducing globalization and encouraging changes in steel, iron and communication facilities.

This revolution also had a great impact on other sectors in society such as politics and culture. The meaning of culture was changed drastically because of the new job openings and great increase in production of goods. The meaning of a job was evolving for many people, a lot of which benefitted from improvements in family income. On the other hand, the introduction of factories meant the loss of craftsmanship. The repetitive motions of the machines removes all mastery and satisfaction from labour.

Everyone’s life style and standard of living was now based on the technological advancements in society. Now there was a large variety of goods to satisfy everyone’s tastes and needs. Most people could now afford to own their own equipment and tools which were previously only affordable by the wealthier of classes prior to this revolution. Rapid economic growth and spreading prosperity were among the effects of the Industrial Revolution.

The revolution in transportation meant that people could now travel further than ever before. Here a whole new commerce was introduced in the form of travelling. This helps in changing cultural norms and values too as people where mixing with different societies.

The most important virtues where staying out of debt and saving what you earned. This all changed, as after the Industrial Revolution, the main word was consumption. If people didn’t buy goods off store shelves, then the shop owner wouldn’t have to order stock from the factory and so people would be made redundant from the factory and this would close down. The only way to stop this from happening was to teach people how to become intensive customers by purchasing all that say, even if they did not need it.

To encourage such consumption, the advertising industry was created, developing sophisticated techniques suggesting new needs among ordinary people. Often using manipulation, sex appeal, and other emotional inducements, advertisers have been able to get people to purchase objects and services they never felt any need of. And they could be persuaded to throw away still functioning items, in order to buy the "latest, improved" models.

Rider, Christine (1995), ‘An Introduction to Economic History’ South Western

Before this revolution, Britain was a quite different place to the one that exists today. Industrialisation brought with it new types of roads, trains and many other forms of communications which simply did not exist prior to industrialisation. So before the Industrial Revolution it was very hard to keep in touch with people in other parts of the country. News was spread by travellers or through messengers, and goods were distributed largely within the locality in which they were produced.

Because it was so hard to move around, people had to rely upon themselves and their communities to provide the vast majority of the things that they needed. Food was produced locally. Clothing was made locally, making use of animal hides and furs.

Life was, for the bulk of the population, the life of a farmer. By the 18th century the feudal system was long gone, but in its place was a system in which the people were as reliant upon each other and their master as before.

Some people were fortunate enough to benefit from imported goods which came into ports such as London and Bristol in increasing quantities from the Elizabethan age onwards. What was manufactured was done making use of natural elements.

Education was poor, only the rich being catered for by nannies and private tutors. There were of course schools and several universities. These were not for the ordinary man or woman though. Also, politics was based upon land ownership.

As McCloskey said in 1981,

"In the eighty years or so after 1780 the population of Britain nearly tripled, the towns of Liverpool and Manchester became gigantic cities, the average income of the population more than doubled, the share of farming fell from just under a half to just under a fifth of the nation's output, and the making of textiles and iron moved into steam-driven factories.”

http://www.ehs.org.uk/industrialrevolution/PH_index.htm

The industrial revolution certainly saw changes in the economy and society of Britain. There was a huge increase in the numbers of people employed in industrial sectors, manufacturing goods of all kinds, especially textiles, iron goods, and metal wares, for both overseas and domestic markets. More of the working population also came to live and work in towns and cities. A drastic smaller proportion of the working population, which is less than a third, lived in the countryside and got their living from the land.

In the early 18th Century, more than two thirds of the labour force had been in agriculture but now, towns and cities grew at an exceptional rate, due to the high rates of population growth that accompanied industrialisation.

During and after the industrial revolution, population growth and economic growth were able to occur together over the long term, unlike what has happened before, where when there was an increase in population, there was always a decrease in economic growth. However, during and after the industrial revolution, both population and economy were able to grow together.

Poverty walked with disease and death in industrial Britain during the first half of the nineteenth century. Hard working conditions, long hours of working, poor diet, overcrowded poor housing and inadequate sanitary arrangements made poor health and early death inevitable mostly for the lower classes.

One specific city which has been through vast amounts of study was Manchester. A number of important people such the literary man Robert Southey, medical luminaries like Dr James Phillips Kay and social scientists like Friedrich Engels studied these problems.

Housing conditions and the health of the public during the middle years of the Industrial Revolution cannot be separated. However, it was only when a deadly cholera epidemic spread in Manchester's poor areas that Kay and his associates were able to do something to change the housing and sanitary conditions in the inner city. They did not know how cholera spread and were only examining ways of combating this disease. They firmly believed that, only by relieving the conditions that prevailed in the worst city slums would make it possible to cure the instability that was threatening the rest of the city. However, the opportunity to take decisive action was lost. Engels, exploring these same areas of Manchester by night 12 years later, found only little change in these circumstances.

The rapid industrial growth that began in Great Britain during the middle of the eighteenth century which later on expanded to other countries provided a wide range of material for many nineteenth-century writers. The literature of the Industrial Revolution includes essays, fiction, and poetry that respond to the changes which occured in technology as well as the labour and demographic changes. Having observed the adoption of such new technologies as the steam engine and other types of new technology, the Scottish intellectual Thomas Carlyle described this period as the "Mechanical Age". The Industrial Revolution literature gives us a range of literary genres. Social critics such as John Ruskin, Henry Adams, and Carlyle examined the cultural changes that accompanied the machine. On the other hand, novelists ranging from Charles Dickens to Rebecca Harding Davis and Herman Melville provided a realistic treatment of modern working conditions. Moreover, poets such as William Wordsworth and Walt Whitman saw to the artist's role in such a world.

By the close of the eighteenth century, the early romantics began to view the emerging technology in a different light. A case in point is that in Friedrich Schiller’s ‘Letters upon the Aesthetical Education of Man’ (1795), argued that the machine was a threat to individual freedom and a destructive force on contemporary culture.

The issues surrounding the relationship between technology and culture have continued to interest critics and writers well into the twentieth century. Contemporary writers also look to literary figures of the Industrial Revolution as they address similar concerns of the role of the machine in today’s society.

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Efforts Of German Purists Since 1600 History Essay

 

In order to describe how purists have affected the German language it is necessary to define purism. Pfalzgraf (2009)  states, “there is scarcely any intellectually satisfying definition to be found in the relevant literature.” (p.138). George Thomas (1991) however does give a summary of assorted existing definitions: “Purism is the manifestation of a desire on the part of a speech community...to preserve a language from, or rid it of, putative foreign elements or other elements held to be undesirable... Above all, purism is an aspect of the codification, cultivation and planning of standard languages.” (p.12). Linguistic purism in Germany came about in the 17th century and is still active in the present day. This essay will follow the efforts of German purists in chronological order, starting with the origins of various Sprachgesellschaften in the early 1600s, and finishing with purist movements still active nowadays, such as the Verein Deutsche Sprache. Pfalzgraf (2009) splits purism in the history of the German language into six phases: the baroque era; the Age of Enlightenment; from the French Revolution to the Carlsbad Decrees; the early 19th century; from 1871 to the Second World War; and from World War 2 until present day (pp. 143-158). The attitudes, actions and success of German purists differ greatly between these various phases, therefore it is very useful to assess purism in this way in order to fully understand the impact that different purists had on the German language.

The baroque era of purism in the history of the German language ranged from the early 17th century up until the early 18th century. At the beginning of this period German was seen as an unimportant language both academically and culturally, inferior to languages such as Latin, French and Italian. German scholars on the other hand believed the German language to be both “ancient and dignified” (Pfalzgraf 2009 p.143) and also regarded it as a protolanguage (Jones 1999). Pfalzgraf (2009) goes on to write that it was “thought to be important to cultivate the German language and keep it pure from foreign influences” in order “to fend off the cultural dominance of French and Latin” (p.143). This description of the context and historical background conveys the birth of German purism. The main idea of purity in this period was to make German a culturally central language by ridding it of foreign lexical influences, and also offensive or unclear words and expressions. This in turn lead to the appearance of the Sprachgesellschaften in Germany.

Perhaps the most important Sparachgesellschaft of the baroque era was the Fruchtbringende Gessellschaft which was created in 1617 by Ludwig von Anhalt-Köthen, and lasted up until the end of the century. The Bericht der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft Zweck und Vorhaben (1622) declares that an association should be established “in which one would speak and write in good pure German and otherwise, in the same group, would undertake to elevate our mother tongue (as nature obliges each of us to do) in a useful and constructive fashion.” (my translation). In other words, the society was created in order to promote the vernacular use of German. One of the major ways the Fruchtbringende Gessellschaft achieved this was through its designation of names and emblems with explanatory verses to all of its members. For example, Ludwig was named Der Nährende and his emblem was a loaf of bread; Justus Georg Schottelius, a very influential figure in purism at the time, was called Der Suchende. Pfalzgraf (2009) suggests that many of the emblems given to members relate to the Italian Accademia della Crusca (founded in 1582). He writes, “The metaphor of separating the grain from the chaff expresses the idea that there are both desirable and undesirable words, phrases, grammatical constructions, etc., in every language, the former being worth taken care of, whereas the latter should be abolished.” (p.144). This analysis of the metaphor sums up what the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft was trying to achieve. David Wellbery (A new history of German literature 2004) suggests that new discussions were created in the choosing of these emblems and verses, and that “In the very act of admitting its members, the Fruit-Bearing Society fulfilled the purpose for which it had been founded: to foster conversation and literature in the German language.” (p.279).

The Age of Enlightenment in general promoted a different attitude towards German purism. Pfalzgraf (2009) writes that the key aim of the period “was to establish German as a language of science to replace the widely-used Latin language.” (p.146). However amongst the most important purists of the age there were big contrasts in attitudes and approaches towards the standardization of the German language. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was very much in favour of the scientific promotion of German in favour of Latin. He saw the German language as under threat because scholars favoured Latin and even French over German. He also agreed with the baroque view that obscenities and colloquialisms should not be used. However Leibniz was not totally against the use of foreign words in German. Pfalzgraf (2009) states that Leibniz agreed with the use of foreign words in academic and government writings, but believed that regular everyday German should contain no foreign influences at all. Therefore Leibniz did share some of the same attitudes to other purists regarding foreign influences, however he did not agree with the total abolishment of them. At the other end of the spectrum there was Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, who Pfalzgraf describes as “the most extreme language protector of the Enlightenment.” (2009 p.148). Klopstock’s attitudes follow on from those brought about in the baroque era. In his book Zur Sprachreinigung im Deutschen 1789-1871 (1975) Alan Kirkness writes that Klopstock pursued “the patriotic pride in the mother tongue” (p.54 my translation). Evidence of Klopstock’s patriotism can be seen in the Memoirs of Frederick and Margaret Klopstock (1808). Early in his life Klopstock decided to write the first epic poem in German in order to “raise the fame of German literature in this particular to a level with that of other European countries” because the French “had denied to the Germans any talent for poetry” (p.5).

In his essay, Das Phänomen des Purismus in der Geschichte des Deutschen (1998), Kirkness states that there were four different approaches towards purism in the period 1789 to 1819. These were the educative-enlightening approach, the language structural approach, the radically-rational approach, and the political-nationalistic approach (p.411). An important purist of this period to mention is Joachim Heinrich Campe who followed the educative-enlightenment approach towards purism. He was not nationalistically influenced, but wanted to create a language which every German could use, even the uneducated. His intentions were to create a transparent language with no unclear foreign words. Pfalzgraf (2009) writes that Campe “was of the opinion that only a pure German language, comprehensible to every citizen, would lead to the general enlightenment of the German people.” (p.149) In his attempts to achieve this Campe created his Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache (1807-11), of which he accumulated five volumes. On top of that he created the Wörterbuch zur Erklärung und Verdeutschung der unserer Sprache aufgedrungenen fremden Ausdrücke (1813). In his dictionaries Campe is said to have produced around 3,500 neologisms, however only about 350 of them are still used today. Pfalzgraf suggests that Campe was perhaps not very successful due to his limited knowledge of linguistics and his superficial methods (p.150). He even tried to change the styles of contemporary writers in order to better distribute his ideas, which lead to heavy criticism from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Overall Campe was not very successful in his attempts to break the foreign lexical barrier between the uneducated and educated classes.

The early nineteenth century was also a relatively unsuccessful period for purists in Germany. This phase was characterised by nationalistically motivated purists, quite the opposite approach from that of Joachim Campe. A further difference was in who was actively campaigning for purism. Academics began to condemn the use of foreign words, in contrast to earlier times when they had accepted foreign influences in German. They believed that to create a German national unity and emancipation it was necessary to have an “unadulterated standard German” (Pfalzgraf 2009 p. 152). Many Sprachschutzvereine and journals were founded in this period. These included the failed Verein der Deutschen Reinsprache,Die Eiche and the Freies Deutsches Hochstift (which still exists today). The former two were both created by Karl Brugger, an eager patriot and nationalist. However in both, “practically nothing was achieved” (Pfalzgraf 2009 p.153). The reasons for his failures can be compared to those of Campe in the earlier phase. Brugger was not actually a qualified linguist and had poor knowledge of linguistic constructions. These two eras involved many purists, however it seems their passion outweighed their actual knowledge of the subject, leading to little impact upon the German language.

In contrast to the ineffective efforts of German purists from earlier times, the period 1871 up to the Second World War saw much success in German. A major reason for this was the abolishment of foreign words in areas of official work. Hundreds of German words replaced French ones in industry, travel, the army and the post office. For example the French word for a ‘return-ticket’, Retourbillet, was replaced with the German Rückfahrkarte. Therefore there was official support for the protection of the German language in certain public sectors.

This period also saw the creation of successful Sprachschutzvereine – organisations which had previously failed and made no impact upon the language. The most important of these was the Allgemeiner Deutscher Sprachverein (ADSV) which was founded by Hermann Riegel in 1885. This society had three key objectives. Firstly was to purify the German language through the abolishment of foreign influences. Secondly was to repair and protect the quintessential spirit and nature of the German language. Lastly the ADSV wanted to invigorate the patriotism of the German people. Perhaps this last aim can be seen as the most important, for the ADSV were more concerned with a sense of national identity rather than with the German language itself, as can be seen in the organisations motto, “Gedenke auch, wenn du die deutsche Sprache sprichst, daß du ein Deutscher bist!”  The ADVS managed to create a passion for the German language amongst ordinary Germans, causing them to join the fight against foreign influences. However after its initial success the ADSV struggled with the rise of the Nazis, who opposed the aims and activities of the foundation. Joseph Goebbels in particular was against the work of the ADSV, which came to an end around 1940.

After the end of the ADSV there was no real purist activity in Germany for many decades. However since the 1990s the battle against foreign influences has sparked up again. Where in earlier times purists were mainly concerned with the use of French words, recently the ridding of English words in the German language and anti-Americanism have become the focal points of German purism. Many refer to anglicisms as ‘Denglisch’. The Verein Deutsche Sprache is another Sprachverein which was founded in 1997. According to its website it now has over 32,000 members across countries all over the world, a third of which are friends of the German language from Asia and Africa.  The aims of the association are also stated on the website. They want to combat the anglicization of the German language; remind Germans of the value and beauty of the German language; and they do not want to lose the ability to define new things with new words. The second aim mentioned is similar to the attitudes of the former ADSV. Once again the society is promoting a sense of German pride, as well as focussing on the language itself.

In their main campaign against ‘Denglisch’ the VDS target companies and institutions which are not using the German language as it should be. For example they write protest letters to organisations which they have labelled as Sprachhunzer des Monats. On top of that they select a Sprachpanscher des Jahres (language adulterator of the year) and have also had a Tag der deutschen Sprache every year since 2001 on 30th September. Yet again however it is possible to claim that this society puts passion for the German language ahead of actual linguistic knowledge. Although the academic advisory board of the VDS is made up mostly of university professors, almost none of them are experts in the field of linguistics.

To summarise, since 1600 there have been many purist individuals and organisations in Germany which have attempted to cleanse the German language of foreign influences and restore a sense of national pride in the German people. The various attempts over the centuries have had varying degrees of success, but overall it must be argued that German purists have had little impact upon the German language since 1600. Too many of the individuals and societies have lacked the linguistic knowledge needed in order to make a difference and persuade people that the German language is in fact in danger. There have of course been successes along the way, for example in the campaigns of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft, the institutionalisation of linguistic purism after 1871, and, to an extent, the early years of the ADSV. Many German words have been created over the years which have successfully replaced French, Latin and English words. However the amount of success does not accurately reflect the effort put in by German purists since the 17th century. An example of this is the mere ten percent of Joachim Campe’s suggestions which were accepted into the German language. Although all of the purists have been extremely eager and passionate in their activities, the lack of actual linguistic knowledge and understanding of how language functions in a speech community has to be seen as a major reason for why they have had little impact upon the German language. Many efforts have been made since 1600, but relatively little has been achieved.

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Uk Tax System Most Perfect Tax System Devised Economics Essay

John S. Caldwell said "The point to remember is what government gives it must first take away1." Taxes transfer spending power from the taxpayer to the government. Taxation exceeds the totals that can be increased by resorting to the printing press, charging consumers directly, or borrowing. The government gathers money to give on public services, such as education, health and the social security system by tax.

The main UK taxes are presented and categorized and the principal sources of tax law are explained. It is consisted of a number of different taxes, some of which are direct taxes and other is indirect taxes. The fundamental rules of sources of tax law are laid down in Acts of Parliament. In modern Britain taxation has become completely embedded in the society. Without taxation the country would cease to operate.

Over the years the UK taxation system has become extremely complicated. This has developed a system which is strangled by red tape and can be very confusing for both personal taxation and business taxation.

The coalition government has planned a number of very good received ideas with regards to the UK taxation system although as yet no final decisions have been made. Any move to intelligible the current taxation system should help with investment, both internally and externally, in the UK to hopefully create a good situation for all involved.

UK tax law must accede with the regulations and directives of the European Union. EU member’s states must provide members of other EU states freedom of establishment and not tax them at higher rates than their own nationals. In additionally, UK tax law must be agreeable with the European Convention on Human Rights and the Human Rights Act 1998.

The UK government repair the UK taxation system in a move which will be welcomed by the British residents and businesses. As a whole, the UK has a low-tax, low-allowance system of taxation. For this reason, it estimated the most perfect tax system that could be conceived. Besides, I will analyze this perception with the following basic information.

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The income tax system of the United Kingdom has cultivated over many years during which it has been clarified and outlined by amending legislation and by case law. If you live in the UK, you will have to pay income tax for your wages, if you are employed, the profits from your business if you're self-employed, jobseeker’s allowance, retirement pensions, income from property, building and bank society interest and dividends on shares. Likewise, there are some exceptions for individuals like ambassadors and their foreign staff, members of visiting armed forces and officials of the United Nations.

This tax is collected by the government department known as HM Revenue & Customs. The personal income tax is lower in UK than many countries. It is based on individual rather than family income and only about 10% of taxpayers have been needed to file returns in recent years. The UK income tax highlights simplicity, downplays the main role of public policy and limits attempts to achieve finely tuned measures of income. When working in the UK, you can usually select between a numbers of different ways to receive your pay. Under the UK PAYE (pay-as-you-earn) taxation scheme, tax will be abstracted from your pay by your employer before you receive it. Your PAYE UK deductions will be a combination of your income tax and National Insurance (NI) contributions.

National Insurance is a necessary deduction of a fixed percentage of your earnings that admits you to have admission to benefits and services such as the National Health Service (NHS).As an employer you pay National Insurance contributions (NICs) on the earnings you supply to your employees. Earnings consist of not only cash amounts but advantages, such as providing your employees with company cars. Employed and self-employed pay NICs on their earnings too. Some contributions go towards building up workers’ entitlements to public security benefits such as Jobseeker’s Allowance and the State Pension.

In European legislation, value added tax (VAT) is now firmly demonstrated as one of the most important forms of taxation in Britain. The target of this is to compose an accepted system of taxation that does not impede intra European Union business transaction. Britain's legislation applies a "taxable person" is an individual, partnership or company who is, or is needed to be, registered for VAT. The UK VAT legislation includes all forms of business supply made in return for consideration.

VAT has an important and often definite force on the economics of property development and construction. Not all purchases have VAT applied, for instance children's clothes and shoes are usually exempt from VAT as is most food which we purchase from a store. The VAT decline helps the community save money as retailers and providers have decrease their prices. Although, there is an excise tax which HMRC charges on some goods that are acquired, imported or produced in the UK. It is charged on alcohol, hydrocarbon oils (including fuel and petrol), cigarettes and tobacco. Increasing prices and grander taxes leads to a sharp rise in total communication tax revenue. Except of this, is this really an advantage especially as most of our day to day living purchases are actually food on which VAT is not always applied? To the best of my knowledge, i strongly believe that the increase tax on the cigarettes motivate people to quit smoking for the best of their health. Alternatively, merchants afraid of the cost increase because it will push more smokers onto the black market in tobacco products, which are purchased them at half the retail price. Also, the increased prices on alcohol stimulate people not get drunk so decreases the crimes in UK. On the other hand, this situation had closed many pubs. About the petrol, it is obvious that the other transportation is cheaper. You should not have to pay for petrol, parking’s etc. In addition to this, I could say that the escalator on the vat price for petrol was designed to raise money and discourage car use on environmental grounds.

Capital gains tax has two basic problems. Firstly, it is about capital gains which arise only when the price level increased. However, there are other considerations which are discussed and there is also the practical problem of selecting an appropriate index amount to take account of inflation.

The other problem is that capital gains tax should be imposed on an accrual basis. In real, this would include the valuation of capital assets every year, so deducting a considerable administrative burden. In addition, it would include the risk that individuals might be forced to liquidate assets in order to pay the tax.

In United Kingdom, capital gains tax prevents these problems because it is levied on a realisation basis. But this creates some difficulties. To start with, asset-holders may be "locked-in", in the sense that they have an inducement to defer payment of the tax by not realising the asset. Next, it is difficult to make the tax growing because assets are realised in changeable lumps. That's why need complex averaging provisions. This difficult is aggravated because an individual's capital gains, whether realised or not, happen irregularly.

There is no intention in the UK tax system to subject a receipt to both income tax and capital gains tax. If a receipt is subject to income tax the no capital gains tax liability will arise. This is a common rule that exist in Britain. A liability to capital gains tax arises when a chargeable person makes a chargeable disposal of chargeable assets. Capital gains are arranged for inflation, while deductions for mortgage interest and other items are more limited than other countries.

On the other hand, nothing in life is black and white. George Osborne said Britain had "one of the most complex and opaque tax codes in the world". Some people believe that the UK tax law needed to be simplified, to cut the burden on business and attract foreign investment. People might actually understand the tax laws which they were being asked to comply with. The tax system evolved into a "hindrance" to business under Labour, and that by simplifying it and making it more competitive for small companies it would motivate economic growth.

The common political parties are right to suggest policies to maximise revenue as part of their schemes to ease the deficit. On the other hand, their plans place too much emphasis on tax increases rather than spending declines. Certainly, their schemes would cause the highest economic injury by increasing taxes on employment and income rather than consumption, and by maximizing the burden on a small class of wealth generators rather than widening the total of taxpayers. The contemporary plans will prevent investment, employment and growth.

Alternatively, it is important to remind the electorate that expenses have to be paid for. UK political parties have given the conception that ever raising welfare advantages and social services can be made accessible to them at little or no cost. The effect is unsustainable positions of social costs.

Each of the major parties has proposed tax policy changes. Basing tax policy on principles will itself go a long way to restore businesses and investors. A new set of standards for UK tax policy will affect to raising the tax base rather than damaging raises in tax rates, income from dissimilar sources should be taxed in an similar method and tax should be connected to the individual, the tax system and tax policy method should be available from political whim and regular with principle and taxes must be required in an even handed way and individuals should offer their equal share, in all parts of the income scale.

In conclusion, it is obvious that the UK tax system is in good way and day by day evolves for the best. The Paymaster General, Dawn Primarolo, said:

“The measures announced today will ensure that the UK has a fair and competitive tax system that recognises the challenges of today’s business environment. They will advance the Government’s vision of a modern and efficient tax system that supports commercial decisions and promotes economic efficiency and productivity while keeping pace with European and international developments.”

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Winners And Losers Of Globalisation Processes Economics Essay

There are both winners and losers associated with globalisation, however what exactly is globalisation and how can it be defined? Daniels et al. Defines the term globalisation in the following way: ‘A contested term relating to the transformation of spatial relations that involves a change in the relationship between space, economy and society’.(Page 13 text book) There are a few key dimensions connected to globalisation, these are economical, political, social, cultural and environmental. I argue that there are some positives linked to globalisation, however many are still worse off and suffer as a result of this phenomenon. Some general winners as a result of globalisation are the highly skilled and educated, large firms, global markets, men, or any people with assets. The losers of globalisation are the workers, women and children, local communities, the uneducated, people without skills and small firms. For globalisation to work there needs to be a decrease in inequality so that the gap between predominantly the rich and poor countries become closer together.

Transnational and multinational corporations are corporations which have headquarters in a certain country (mainly in a global city) and operate in several other countries around the world. They have been the central players in the evolution of globalisation since the Second World War. These have continued to become some of the most powerful economic and political entities in the world today. The corporations can influence globalisation greatly and bring wealth to developed countries. Many of the larger Transnational Corporations (TNCs) have a higher turnover than the majority of the world’s countries. For example, the combined revenues of just General Motors and Ford, the two largest automobile corporations in the world, exceed the combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for all of sub-Saharan Africa.  

Economic globalisation refers to increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross border movement of goods, service, technology and capital.  Capitalism drives globalisation in this present era and will continue to do so with the markets opening up and becoming neo-liberal. Whilst economic globalisation has been occurring over several thousands of years, it has just recently expanded rapidly with the increasing improvements in technology, transportation and free trade. This recent growth has occurred in the main from developed countries integrating with less developed countries, by means of foreign direct investment (FDI), the reduction of trade barriers and the modernisation of these developing cultures. Countries involved in trade liberalisation benefit from an increase in living standards, increased incomes, and higher rates of economic growth. For economies to grow, TNCs need to generate profit and expand globally. They achieve this by moving shop to less developed countries in order to decrease production costs and increase profit. The winners of this process are the major corporations (Nike, Gap, Tommy Hilfiger, etc.) whose products are made at a minimal cost, thus generating increased amounts of profit allowing them to globalise their business and become wealthier.

There have been many criticisms against TNCs however they have invested into developing countries and via doing this, have actually raised the living standards. Even though the western world sees sweetshops as being unethical, the labourers who work in them are often benefiting greatly. Many economists whose studies are directly related to sweatshops find that after controlling for other factors, multinational firms pay higher wages than domestic firms in Third World countries.  Many citizens in developing countries are unqualified or uneducated this makes it extremely difficult for them to find employment by being unqualified. Feenstra and Hanson (1997) find that multinational firms improve the lives of workers by increasing the demand for labour. This indicates that unqualified citizens still have a chance of employment and receiving an above average income. The apparel industry has drawn most attention in the press for its use of sweatshop labour. Evidently, the apparel wages are low by western country standards however, these wages compare favourably with the average standard of living within these countries. For example, in Honduras, the site of the famous Kathy Lee Gifford sweatshop scandal, the average apparel worker earns, $13.10 per day, yet 44% of the country’s population lives on less than $2 per day.  Evidently, sweatshops do play a major role in developing countries, however there still are some negatives surrounding them.

The negative associated with globalisation cannot be overlooked. The losers of this process are the workers who work increased hours; earn little income, along with poor living and working standards. Even though sweatshops produce a reasonable, above average income for its workers, they usually work in dirty polluted factories which may have a negative effect on the worker and may decrease their life span. For example, Tommy Hilfiger a world renowned brand has set up sweatshops in developing countries, where products are made at a minimal cost and sold in developed countries at a high cost, producing major profits which return to the specific TNC headquarters, thus the developing countries economy does not benefit greatly. This in turn leads to an increase in inequality between the rich and the poor. As a result of sweatshops, citizens in the developing world may suffer as well. When these major corporations move shop to reduce costs they leave several thousands of local citizens unemployed, which may lead to them relying on the doll or welfare. They may also substitute humans with labour saving technologies which will also increase unemployment levels. This can continue to lead to issues such as a loss of tax revenue which may be detrimental to the home country and halt them from moving forward. An additional loser in this process can be the consumer who purchases these products which can be described as being ‘highly overpriced’.

Another significant and often overlooked loser from economic globalisation is the environment. Major corporations’ decreases in environmental integrity as polluting corporations take advantage of weak regulatory rules in developing countries. For example, human systems are depleting resources and degrading the environment at unprecedented rates, such as mining companies clearing land for production causing deforestation and pollution. There are many more examples of environmental degradation such as urbanization of productive land; water logging and salinization of soil; soil erosion; deforestation; ground water depletion; ozone depletion; pollution; and climate change to name a few. These are all issues which are currently being seen through media sources. Such as the BP oil spill which has been graded the biggest environmental disaster in the US history, “The oil rig, about 40 miles (64km) off the coast of Louisiana, sank two days later, gushing an estimated 12,000 to 19,000 barrels of crude oil a day into the Gulf of Mexico.”  This appears to be a prime example of environmental degradation. This disaster continues to have multiple effects on the environment and economy such as killing wildlife and habitat, and effecting tourism on this part of the coast. Ms Wickman, owner of the Treasure Trove gift shop that occupies an 18th century church, one of Alabama's oldest buildings, estimates that her business has dropped by half since news of the April 20 explosion that destroyed an oil rig under contract with BP.  Due to the interconnectedness of globalisation when this disaster occurred all the oil prices around the world fluctuated and were unstable at the time.

Some countries may suffer from the ‘resource curse’. A prime example of the resource curse is Nigeria which is a rich country with desperately poor people. Despite its massive earning from oil, 70% of its estimated 140 million people live below the poverty line.  About 95 percent of Nigeria's revenue is generated by oil and gas, resulting in billions of dollars in state funds every year, though much of the country remains impoverished and underdeveloped this is mainly due to a high level of corruption in its government.  These can lead to much greater issues within developing countries such as an increase in the chances of civil war within developing countries and open war between developing countries as they fight for resources.

In conclusion, there are evidently positive impacts which have occurred as a part of the globalisation phenomenon. It has contributed to increased job opportunities for uneducated or unqualified citizens, has increased economic growth for developed countries through transnational and multinational corporations, and increased living standards due to trade liberalisation. Even though there are some negatives associated with globalisation such as increasing the gap between the rich and poor, exploiting labourers, along with having environmental impacts, globalisation has still continued to have many great benefits on the world. It is unreasonable to predict that globalisation will encourage equality around the world; there will always be winners and losers, regardless.

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Haiti The First Republican Country In Latin America History Essay

History » Haiti The First Republican Country In Latin America History Essay

Haiti is the first republican country in Latin America. It gained its independence in 1804 and it has the world’s first black led government. Though Haiti has a rich historical background, it is counted as one of the least developed countries in the world and it is heavily obliged to the World Bank.

Haitian geography is very diverse. From mountain ranges to coastal plains, all exist in harmony in this Caribbean island. Many selection of flora and fauna are originated there. But due to the rushed trend of modern urbanization many species have perished.

Haiti is situated near the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts towards east by about 20mm per year in relation to the North American plate. This places Haiti in a very risky position, as it means that Haiti is very vulnerable to quakes, cyclones and other dire weather conditions due to the tectonic plate movements.

The worst quake to hit Haiti in about 200 hundred years was on January 12th 2010. It was of magnitude 7.0 followed by 12 aftershocks, each of magnitude greater than 5.0. It caused about 230,000 deaths, 300,000 injuries and about another 1,000,000 left homeless.

Communication methods, air, land, and sea transport facilities, hospitals, and electrical networks had been destroyed by the quake, which hampered rescue and aid efforts.

Many of the world’s countries pitched in to help Haiti back to its feet. A telethon was held and it raised about US$58 million.

With the increasing frequency of earthquakes, tsunamis and other natural disasters, Haiti was yet another unfortunate bearer of tragedy when an earthquake shook the very souls of the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere. Fortunately, support from all the ends of the Earth has come to surpass this unavoidable and unimaginable event. This report intends to give an overview of Haiti, the earthquake and the aftermath.

Haiti was the first independent country in Latin America. It is the second largest island in the Greater Antilles and is situated in the western part of Hispaniola.  Haiti gained its independence after a slave rebellion in 1804 and it is the first black led republican country in the world.  Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, and is ranked 149th of 182 countries on the Human Development Index.  About 225,000 Haitian children are working as unpaid household help, which is considered as a form of modern slavery.  It was considered and the qualified as one of the countries which are heavily in debated to the IMF and the World Bank.  

Haiti has a very diverse topography and consists mainly of mountain areas.  As a result of its varied environment, there are very special native flora and fauna which are not found elsewhere. Along with the mountainous terrains are also many small coastal and valleys.  Haiti used to be a very tropically lush and forest covered country until urbanization took over.  As humans began cutting forests to make homes, many rare species of flora and fauna were endangered and farmlands destroyed. Forests were also lost as a result of erosion which was caused due to logging, which is done to get charcoal, the most important source of fuel to the country.  

The Island of Hispaniola, shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic, is seismically active and has a history of destructive earthquakes.  Haiti is located near the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about 20mm per year in relation to the North American plate.  The strike-slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the Septentrional-Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault in the south; both its location and focal mechanism suggest that the January 2010 quake was caused by a rupture of the Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault, which had been locked for 250 years, gathering stress.  A magnitude 8.0 earthquake struck the Dominican Republic and shook Haiti on 4 August 1946, producing a tsunami that killed 1,790 people and injured many others.  The Australian government's travel advisory site had previously expressed concerns that Haitian emergency services would be unable to cope in the event of a major disaster, and the country is considered "economically vulnerable" by the Food and Agriculture Organization. It is no stranger to natural disasters; in addition to earthquakes, it has been struck frequently by cyclones, which have caused flooding and widespread damage.  

January 12th 2010, the 6th worst earthquake recorded in history with a magnitude of 7.0, hit less than ten miles from the capital of Port-au-Prince, Haiti. The preliminary earthquake was followed by twelve aftershocks greater than magnitude 5.0.  The Haitian Government reported that between 217,000 and 230,000 people had been recovered as dead, approximately 300,000 injured, and over 1,000,000 left homeless. They also projected that 250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were brutally damaged,  from shantytown homes to national landmarks,  including the Presidential Palace, the National Assembly building and the Port-au-Prince Cathedral.  Amongst those perished were Archbishop of Port-au-Prince Joseph Serge Miot and opposition leader Micha Gaillard. The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), situated in the capital also collapsed killing the Mission's Chief, Hédi Annabi.  

Numerous countries took action to appeals for humanitarian aid, transferring funds and sending rescue and medical teams, engineers and support personnel. Communication systems, air, sea, and land transport services, hospitals, and electrical networks had been damaged by the quake, which hindered rescue and aid work; uncertainty over who was in charge, air traffic overcrowding, and issues with prioritization of flights additionally complicated early relief efforts.  Port-au-Prince's morgues were rapidly inundated; tens of thousands of bodies were buried in mass graves.  As rescues slowed down, supplies, medical care and sanitation became the main concern. Holdups in aid circulation led to angry demands from aid workers and survivors, and various pillaging and periodic violence were observed.  

Amid the extensive destruction and damage all over Port-au-Prince and elsewhere, essential infrastructure required to respond to the disaster was severely destroyed or damaged. There was substantial damage to communications infrastructure.  The public telephone system was not accessible, and two of Haiti's leading cellular phone providers, Digicel and Comcel Haiti both complained that their services had been affected by the quake. According to Reporters Sans Frontières (RSF), the majority of the radio stations went off the air and merely 20 of the 50 stations in Port-au-Prince were back on air a week following the quake.  

In the evenings following the quake, countless people slept in the streets, on pavements, in cars, or in temporary shanty towns either because their homes had been ruined, or they feared remaining structures would not endure aftershocks.  Building standards are low in Haiti and the country has no building codes. Engineers have affirmed that it is doubtful many buildings would have stood through any sort of disaster.  Structures are regularly raised anywhere they can fit; a number of buildings were constructed on hills with inadequate foundations or steel works. A spokesperson for Catholic Relief Services has projected that about two million Haitians lived as squatters on territory they did not own.  The nation also suffered from deficiencies of fuel and potable water even prior to the quake.  

On January 22nd, a charity telethon called Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief was held and was the most broadly circulated telethon in history.  Plans for the telethon were advertised by MTV Networks three days after the 2010 Haiti quake hit.  Money raised by the telethon and from the sales of its video and album, which were immediately accessible on iTunes, were spread to seven charities doing aid work in Haiti. By January 23rd, the telethon had raised over US$58 million.  

Assisting refugee immigration into Canada was discussed by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, and in the United States, Haitian refugees were given Temporary Protected Status which allows approximately 100,000 illegal immigrant Haitians in the country to live legally for 18 months. President Barack Obama declared that former presidents Bill Clinton who is also the UN special envoy to Haiti, and George W. Bush would help raise money for Haiti's restoration. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Haiti on January 16th to inspect the damage and confirmed that US$48 million had been raised by now in the United States to help Haiti recuperate.  After the conference with Secretary Clinton, President Préval said that the highest precedence in Haiti's revival were founding a functioning government, clearing roads, and clearing the streets of corpses to ensure sanitary conditions.  

Although the recent natural disaster was a tragic punishment to an already impoverished nation, the subsequent worldwide support in rebuilding Haiti could be viewed as a blessing in disguise. While Haiti was the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere, with all the new investments and attention, it could very well become one of the hot-spots for international travel and tourism. The worldwide efforts made for these wonderful people will no doubt improve more aspects of everyone’s lives, though indirectly. Fortunately, Haiti was not overtaken by war and intentional killing for anyone’s gain. This makes for a peaceful reconciliation with their future. Haiti will soon be the physical paradise to match its people’s kindness.

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