Showing posts with label Essay. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Essay. Show all posts

Essay on Fahrenheit 451

"Fahrenheit 451"

Description of Montag, day 1:

On the first day of Ray Bradbury's dystopian novel "Fahrenheit 451" seems to be the awakening of the protagonist Guy Montag. After fulfilling his duty as a firefighter, what means that he has to burn books, he meets the 17-year-old girl, Clarisse McClellan, that changes his life. She reflects things and thoughts he was dissmissed in the past, and asked him questions he cannot answer. She, definitely a thinker and philosopher asks why, rather than how, what annoys him much. Because of her, he realizes that there is something important missing.
His happiness is just an illusion.
Although trying to dismiss thoughts about Clarisse's words, she has left a big impression.
Later at home, he finds his wife Mildred almost dead after trying to commit suicide by taking sleeping pills. He does not know why she did it, but he was very shocked and surprised.
Since PayPal two operators of hospital acute new blood with a machine. There are too many cases so that the machines need to replace doctors. The guy realizes that people are strangers to him, while the world is changing, and everything changes with the world.

Characterization of guy Montag:

Guy Montag is the protagonist of the dystopian novel "Fahrenheit 451" by Ray Bradbury first published in 1953.
He is a 30-year-old firefighter, whose profession it is to burn books.
Guy Montag is named after a paper manufacturing company.
Montag is a character, which is easily influenced by others.
Although he is clearly a hero, whose actions can be sympathized by readers, (because he is sensitive, compassionate and self reflect) his character is too naïve and simplistic, and his actions are not controlled or coordinated, what makes him such a stupid.
His character seems to change with the times.

At the beginning of the action like he sees things burn, (p. 9; ll. 1-3) "it was a pleasure to burn. It was a pleasure to see things eaten ...

Greek Mythology And Anthropological Timeline Of Greece History Essay

History » Greek Mythology And Anthropological Timeline Of Greece History Essay

Throughout Greek mythology, there are many trends that can be recognized from simply looking at events from a bigger frame. One of the best trends that can be seen is that between the historical and anthropological timeline and the succession from Chaos to man. The historical and anthropological timeline shows an increase in complexity starting with the Pre-Greeks during the Paleolithic Age to the Romans and the Hellenistic Age. The same increase in complexity can be seen as Greek mythology is told, beginning with Chaos and ending with humans.

From the ancient times to around 7000 BC, man was at his most primitive state. During this Paleolithic Age, Greece was inhabited by Pre-Greeks, who would eventually leave and not contribute to the future of Greeks. The same simplicity can be seen in the beginning of Greek mythology. There was one and only one state originally, Chaos. Chaos is shapeless, unorganized, lifeless matter. There was no sun, no moon, and no air. The earth did not have life and the sky did not have any light. Both the Pre-Greeks and Chaos are the beginning pieces in their individual developing stories. They occupied the area in which the stories developed. Chaos occupied the entire universe and the Pre-Greeks occupied Greece.

After the Paleolithic Age, came the Neolithic Age, which was from 6000 BC to 3000 BC. During this time, people began rudimentary farming with the three main elements in the ground: olives, wheat, and grapes. They also stayed in one place and did not want to expand beyond their original area of settlement. Similar events can be seen in mythology. After Chaos, four major elements took part in the beginning of creation: Gaea, Erebos, Tartarus, and Eros. These were the foundation for the rest of the God population as were the ancient Greeks during the Neolithic Age.

Following the Neolithic Age came the Early to Mid Bronze Age, which occurred from 3000 BC to 1600 BC. During this Age, Minoans and Indo-European dominated Greece. These people were very agricultural and worshipers of the goddesses of fertility. The Minoans started building elaborate palaces toward the end of the Early Bronze Age. This shows a small development in thought from simple agriculture to buildings. Indo-Europeans, who were estimated to be around 2100 BC, began speaking an early form of Greek. This language is the basis for many world languages today. Also, a division of people began to appear. Society was divided into kings/priests, warriors, and food producers. This time period is represented in mythology thru Gaea and Uranus as well as Mountains and Pontus. Gaea and Uranus were still the same as the last generation but now there is mating for the first time. This is important because this is the first of three sacred marriages and it sets the pattern for the future. They are, also, now beginning to have more and more gods and spreading their reigns, just like the Indo-Europeans planned.

The Late Bronze Age was from 1600 BC – 1150 BC. This time was also known as the Mycenaean Age. Indo-Europeans began to take over Mycenaean cities including Mycenae, Thebes, Athens, Orchomenus, and Pylos. All of these cities were very important and are involved in future battles. Troy was burnt and rebuilt twice. This age was ruled by powerful and rich warrior kings. This was also an age where the first fully developed writing system, Linear B, was created. This age corresponds with a time in mythology where powerful Gods ruled. Uranus is extremely powerful and is always taking advantage of Gaea. They have 3 types of children: Cyclopes, Hecatonchires, and the Titans. There were 12 Titans in all: swirling (1) Oceanus, (2) Coeus, (3) Crius, (4) Hyperion, (5) Iapetus, (6) Theia and (7) Rhea, (8) Themis, (9) Mnemnosynê, (10) Phoebê, (11) Tethys, and (12) Cronus. All of these children are extremely powerful and all were capable of strength and some thought. This comparison shows some leadership and loyalty as well as progress and evolution of mind. Cronus will stand out as the leader and some of his brothers and sisters will be loyal to him. While Cyclopes and Hecatonchires are just pure strengths, the Titans do have the power to use thought to help them defeat all their adversaries.

After the Bronze Age comes the Dark Age (1150 BC – 800 BC). In this age, the Great Mycenaeans’ palaces were destroyed. This age was full of war, fighting, illiteracy, plagues, and petty kings. There was social disorganization, depopulation, and impoverishment. Full of fighting and hatred, this age is mirrored in mythology with the battle between Cronus and Uranos. During this time, Uranus was constantly raping Gaea and Gaea was suffering from rape and from losing all of her children. Every time Uranus and Gaea would birth a child, Uranus would stuff the newborns back into Gaea. This action shows that Uranus is disregarding any logic and just using his strength. Throughout Greek mythology, there seems to be a trend of attempting to put all children in some sort of captivity because the father is afraid of being overthrown. Cronus was the last child and was very angry when Uranos was raping his mother, Gaea, and thus he castrated Uranos with a sickle. This begins the tradition of succession from father to son. This was a small step forward in the evolution of the mind and refined behavior. Cronus uses his logic to end the suffering of his mother by destroying the source of the suffering.

After Cronus overthrows Uranus, he mates with Rhea and has the Olympians: Demeter, Hera, Hestia, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. This time, Cronus uses some logic and decided to swallow the newly born so that they don’t escape. He saw that the when the women carry the children, it fails. Rhea becomes enraged and decides to make a plan to get her children out of Cronus. She uses logic and fools Cronus into eating a rock in baby’s clothing. This rock was supposed to be Zeus and it had an emetic on it. Once Cronus ate the rock, he threw up and all the other Olympians came out. Zeus then had the task of dethroning Cronus. Cronus was very angry with this and began to fight Zeus by putting him thru many challenges. The Olympians side together with Themis, Prometheus, Cyclopes, and the Hecatonchires and fight all the other Titans in the world in the infamous Titanomachy. Zeus leads the Olympians to a victory but isn’t done with the challenges. Next comes Typheous, who is equally matched with Zeus physically. However, Zeus has Typheous beat when it comes to brains, and he uses this to his advantage by throwing Mt. Etna at Typheous and throwing a lightning bolt right after. This traps Typheous under Mt. Etna. After Typheous came the Giants. The Giants are from the severed genitals of Uranus. With the help of logic and Hercules, Zeus is able to defeat them and finally overthrows Cronus. Zeus’s battles fits quiet well between the Dark Ages and the Archaic Age. Throughout Zeus’s struggles, there is a clear movement from ruthless fighting to logical fighting. This is seen from the transition from the wars in the Dark Ages to the insightfulness and knowledge of the Archaic Period. Most of these battles are ruthless and full of hated. However, Zeus is slowly moving away from using strength to win battles and starts to use his brain to win battles. As Zeus becomes more knowledgeable, his opponents become more powerful. This shows that the more knowledgeable will win over the more powerful.

The Archaic Period (800 BC – 490 BC) came right after the Dark Age. This was when the Greek alphabet was officially invented with vowels and constants. This is also when the Greek –polis was developed. People belonged to certain geographic areas and not just by family ties. People began to develop trade and began cultural and national expansion. Commerce depended on the sea because it was one of the few modes of transportation. Thus, boats and rafts were very popular during this time. At the end of the Archaic period, conflicts with Persia rise and Persia conquers the Greek cities on the western coast of Turkey. This time period is paralleled in Greek mythology to the life of Zeus and the life of his brothers and sisters. This is when the Olympians begin to settle into Olympus. They begin to have some peacefulness for a bit as Zeus is making the transition from son to Ruler of the Sky. This is also the period where Coeus and Phoebe begin their family and Oceanus and Tethys begin theirs as well. More “Tribes” are beginning to develop within the mythology world as it happened in the real world.

After the Archaic period came the Classical Period (490 BC to 323 BC). Democracy in Athens began and the main ideology of this democracy was that all free men had a stake in the city and a role to play in its administration. Philosophy and science also developed in this time period. Also, all the Greeks began to be inspired by their national pride and their military prowess. Greek cities fought between each other but, in the end, they all recognized all of them are Hellenes. They did not want to be similar to the barbaroi surrounding them. One of the major wars between Greeks during this time period is the Peloponnesian War. This war was mainly between Sparta and Athens. This civil war took its toll on all parties involved. There was one major leader during this age, Alexander the Great. He is known as one of the best leaders and one of the most strategic commanders. His death, in 323, marked the end of the Classical Period. This time is mirrored to the Olympians normal day life in Olympus. Zeus is the ruler and there is a time of overall peace. While there may have been disputes between the Olympians, they were mostly passive. This is also the time when Zeus was worried about who would overthrow him. Zeus marries Metis and has children. However, this is not a sacred marriage because Metis is not an Earth goddess. Zeus and Metis have children and the development of child imprisonment continues. Zeus gets Metis pregnant and then eats her. We have now moved from putting the children inside the mother, then putting them inside the father, and now we’re putting them inside the mother inside the father. However, Metis annoys Zeus while inside him and Prometheus breaks open Zeus’s head. Out of his head, comes Athena. This however is a special case because the Child is a girl, not of a sacred marriage, and is born out of Zeus, not Metis. Thus, she can’t overthrow him and Zeus finally succeeded in ensuring he is not overthrown. Democracy, Philosophy, and knowledge are mirrored from the Classical period to mythology. There is some Democracy through out Olympus and Zeus begins to show more and more knowledge, with the incident dealing with Athena. After Metis, Zeus marries Hera to have the 3rd and final sacred marriage.

From 323 BC to 30 BC, the Hellenistic Period was upon Greece. During this time period, the Greek Culture became the “universal” culture in the areas around the Mediterranean Sea. The center of Greece was moved to Alexandria. In 146 BC, Greek was conquered by Rome, ending Greece’s run of almost 7000 years. This is similar to the creation of man. Mythology takes a turn from stories of Gods to stories of men and a similar transition is seen from the Greeks to the Romans. There are a few sketches of the creation of man: (1) Zeus makes man of mud, (2) Prometheus makes men of mud, (3) Zeus floods the entire earth, and Deucalion and Pyrrha survive and repopulate the Earth, and (4) The 5 Ages. Overall, this shows a transition from the Gods to the mortals and can be paralleled in the archeological time period of the Hellenistic Period.

As shown, Greek mythology and the historical and anthropological timeline of Greece show great parallelism with many trends forming. The historical and anthropological timeline shows an increase in complexity starting with the Pre-Greeks during the Paleolithic Age to the Romans and the Hellenistic Age. The same increase in complexity can be seen as Greek mythology is told, beginning with Chaos and ending with humans. Gods become more logical and less violent and this is shown in the transition of Greek history.



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The Way Out European Debt Crisis Economics Essay

 


The crisis that developed in Greece in April last year brought the critical issue of sovereign debt accumulated by the European countries back in prime focus. Although the Greece & Ireland concerns have been temporarily patched up by rescue packages, optimism on the state of other countries particularly Portugal, Italy and Spain is not high. Portugal is seen as the next country in line to request for a bail-out package with the sovereign bond yields rising abnormally in recent times.


Europe is trapped in a very slippery situation currently. It is faced with two major economic issues – Firstly, there is the huge amount of sovereign debt it has accumulated over time and secondly, there is still a long way before the effects of the recession are over. The policy solutions to these issues – bringing down large government budget deficits (which require contractionary fiscal policies) and stimulating the economy during a cyclical economic downturn (which requires expansionary fiscal policies) are at odds with each other. A mix of tax increases and spending cuts to lower the debt levels can lead to higher unemployment and hinder the recovery in the Euro zone. Further, it will be very difficult for the governments to garner public support for its austerity measures with the economy in its current state.


The impact of the crisis has been felt not only in the European region but also in the extensive geographies which have trade relations with them. This crisis has posed a large number of questions which are yet to be answered. The decisions about policy matters like fiscal tightening, rescue package, austerity measures, future of euro has to be evaluated after analyzing the plenty of consequences that can occur in each case. We did a research on the options available for the Eurozone and the level of impacts they are likely to cause. Further, at the business manager level it is always important to be aware and be prepared of the possibilities that can develop in the euro zone.


A straight forward method to enhance the competitiveness of countries affected by the countries is to impose wage cuts on the labour force. This can lead to additional exports, boost long term growth and revive employment. But this solution may provide counter-productive since decreasing wages also means a declining domestic market. The marginal increase in exports can be overweighed by the decline in domestic consumption.


Eurozone survival depends on a lot on correcting the imbalances existing between the highly competitive countries with large current account surpluses and the likes of Greece, Ireland, Portugal and Spain which are suffering from large deficits. Hence there has been a strong call for help to countries like Germany to boost demand and thereby growth in Southern Europe. But critics in Germany are arguing that the trade surpluses should be a means of strengthening its defences against an uncertain future.


The European commission should be given more power to rein in countries that deviate from the deficit targets. The Stability and Growth pact should be sacrosanct and should not be violated by even the major countries in the Euro zone. Also needed are stricter rules, backed if necessary by financial penalties, political sanctions such as a suspension of voting rights and even the option of expulsion. The Euro zone has to maintain credibility in the eyes of the US, China and other global partners and the financial markets in particular. Doubts also persist about the effectiveness of the latest proposals, expected to take effect next year, for enhancing budgetary surveillance. However, France and Germany are of the view that the system must avoid interfering into the powers of the individual parliaments, which diminishes the effectiveness of the proposals. So the current question is whether governments will ever submit to rules that foresee automatic punishments for fiscal indiscipline.


The European Central Bank could engage in a much more expansionary policy by buying lots of government debt. One thing to consider is that if the European Central Bank indulges in buying the government bonds, it would necessarily lead to inflation.


One drastic step is for a country to leave the Eurozone completely. This would likely require abandoning the euro, issuing a national currency, and allowing that currency to depreciate against the euro. It is considered that a new national currency depreciated against the euro would spur export-led growth in the country and offset the contractionary effects of austerity. But since the governments’ debt is denominated in euro, leaving the Euro zone in favour of a depreciated national currency may raise the value of debt in terms of national currency and put pressure on other vulnerable European countries. Additionally, some argue that a departure from the Euro zone would be economically catastrophic and have serious ramifications for political relations among the European states and future European integration.


Europe has so far bailed out the two countries – Greece and Ireland which has requested for assistance. It may also do the same to countries like Portugal and Spain which are next in line. But, it should be kept in mind that countries like Germany and France which are economically stronger than the rest and are the major contributors for the rescue fund won’t be able to cover all of Europe’s debt. A fiscal growth miracle is nowhere to be seen and pumping money is not an option with its inflationary risks. Although not pretty, the only path left is that of debt restructuring or default.


To make matters worse, the rate at which Europe’s average age has increased is a serious cause of concern. The ratio of elderly to the working population is further set to increase sharply because birth rates are low and people are living longer. Europe has to abandon the welfare state concept it has been following over these years to survive this crisis. It has to stop bailing out every country that is in trouble and start looking at the option of allowing governments to restructure or default on their debt.



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How Cultural Revolution Affected Beijing Opera History Essay

Beijing opera is a longstanding tradition in Chinese culture. It has been celebrated for many years, between high and low classes alike. It is intricate and specific. It has wrestled its way through reform and still retains its traditional values. Many people and parties have fought for control of it and many have succeeded. During China’s Cultural Revolution, all arts suffered in their own ways, and Beijing opera is not among the least of them.

What is Beijing opera? It is a form of Chinese musical theatre that incorporates song, acting, bright and intricate costume and difficult acrobatics. Nancy Guy claims that it “is one of the most highly developed and best known of Chinese opera forms both in China and abroad.” The city of Beijing is called Peking by most natives of the country; therefore Beijing opera also is called Peking opera by some people. The official Chinese name, however, is Jingju, literally meaning ‘city opera’. The orchestra is split into two sections, the stringed and the percussive instruments. In addition to the orchestra, vocalists perform. In fact, vocals are the most important part of jingju. Frederick Lau explains in Music in China that there are four voice types and therefore four characters.

“The characters, which indicate age and social status, are young female (dan), young male (sheng), painted face (jing), and clown or comic character (chou). In addition to the facial makeup and costumes, each stock character is characterized by one vocal style and is identified by timbre, voice quality, volume, and manner of enunciation.” (73)

The actors work on their role their entire lives and are greatly respected for what they do because the level of artistry is very high and specific.

Jingju had to evolve into that respect, though. It did not start with a great reputation within the palace. Chinese opera started out in troupes of people that would get together and perform for birthdays, which was a big tradition (Guy). In 1790, many troupes were called to the capital to perform for the Qianlong Emperor’s 80th birthday. Guy states that “among the theatrical participants were troupes from Anhui province in central-eastern China, who specialized in the performance of the xipi and erhuang music.” These are the core of Jingju. Historians believe that never before had these styles been heard together, and so have decided that 1790 is the year the Beijing opera began. Soon after, in 1798, it was officially banned (Guy). However, “the new opera prospered in Beijing.” (Guy). Until 1860, Beijing opera was looked down upon as “vulgar entertainment” by imperials. Even so, in this year two opera companies performed for the Xianfeng Emperor’s 30th birthday. Again in 1884 another troupe performed for the dowager empress Cixi’s 50th birthday (Guy). This kick-started a good several years for Beijing opera, for from 1884 to 1910 several performances were enjoyed at the palace, “and some actors even took up residence at court, where they taught and performed” (Guy). If it were not for the imperials’ shameless love of jingju, it might not have become as popular and widely practiced as it did. Instead of just farmer’s entertainment, it had been raised up through the classes.

In the early 1900’s, Beijing opera experienced a “golden age, with the art form being one of the most pervasive and popular types of entertainment in China… the work of actors, musicians and librettists of the early republican period remain unsurpassed in terms of volume, innovation and longevity” (Guy). After it became so popular, jingju was very important to many people in many different ways. “Social activists… viewed it as a potentially powerful vehicle for social and political change” (Guy). The first attempt at government-organized change within Beijing opera was the Beijing Opera Reform Movement which had much power between 1908 and 1917. “Activists believed that the theatre served as a classroom for the largely illiterate masses and that the most expedient way to achieve broad social change was through opera” (Guy). This led to many changes within opera, such as gender equality and modernization of sets, costumes and general substance.

In 1949 the Republic of China became the People’s Republic of China, or PRC. Attempts at reform became much stronger at this point because everyone wanted to follow Mao Zedong’s way. Many people were added to the production of operas, giving actors much less control over their art (Wichmann-Walczak 96). “Mao saw all art as representing interests of a particular class and demanded that Beijing opera should serve the ‘workers, peasants and soldiers’… art should be explicit propaganda for the revolution and should help to convert the masses to socialism” (Guy). Western artists were brought in to help change jingju and to make it more scientific. The Chinese government even went so far as to change the scripts to “emphasize patriotism, democracy and equality between the sexes” (Guy). In certain ways this helped the popularity of Beijing opera and it gained much more respect from most people.

This did not last for long. “During the ‘ten-year catastrophe,’ as the devastating Cultural Revolution of autumn 1966 through autumn 1976 is usually now identified by people in the PRC, China’s performing arts suffered considerably” (Yang 90). The arts were then completely controlled by the government and the actors no longer had any control or say of what was to become of them. According to Daniel Yang, “all traditional plays were banned and a great many talented artists died” (92). If famous actors were not killed, they were publicly shamed and some were also forced into retirement (94). The only music that was allowed to be performed during the Cultural Revolution was called yangbanxi, or ‘model opera’, “the themes of which were contemporary and revolutionary, with realistic staging and costumes” (Guy). Mao Zedong’s wife, Jiang Qing, rewrote many of the operas “using contemporary themes and her own interpretation of the communist ideology” (Lau 137). It is believed that she is one that thought of ‘model operas’ and that she pushed for these reformed, rewritten operas to be the only ones that were acceptable to be performed. The subject of the yangbanxi was highly political and again directed towards those who were uneducated. It was meant as another form of brainwash into the communist idea and the reign of Mao Zedong. Most of them portray the party “as the benefactor of all oppressed people” (Lau 137) and as someone the people can have peace of mind around and not be afraid of. The party is there for the people.

Not only was the subject matter changed, but the musical style changed as well. There were many more Western instruments and instead of a small group of musicians entire orchestras were performing. There are far fewer percussive sections, which were usually attributed to fight scenes. Even the singing was westernized, following bel canto style. Ironically, Western instruments were banned during this time, yet “were allowed to be performed because the music was based on ‘model operas’” (Lau 137-138).

The end of the decade-long Cultural Revolution in 1976 marked the end of ‘model opera’. People attributed it with “political turmoil” and unrest. Traditional jingju made its way back to the theatres and is now regularly practiced, but much damage has been done. During that decade many actors died, retired, or simply lost the touch of their art because of the lack of ability to practice it. Yang claims that there are still plenty of older actors that made it through the Cultural Revolution and are still performing today (94) and that even though traditional Beijing opera has been greatly damaged, “traditional theatre in contemporary China is still thriving” (95). Operas are being reformed again, but this time simply to appeal to modern audiences and not in an attempt to control the content that is getting out to the public. For instance, “for intellectual urban audiences, plays with daring political and philosophical themes are staged with imagistic rather than realistic scenery and original, historically-based costumes, extraordinary classic-based scores, and innovative instrumentation” (Wichmann-Walczak 108).

Modern jingju still holds 200 years of tradition and is blossoming in its recovery from the Cultural Revolution. Many older operas are being performed, some in pure traditional style and some with modern twists. Considering every reform that Beijing opera has been through, one might be surprised at how much of the originality is still retained.



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Growing Chinese Influence In International Relations History Essay

History » Growing Chinese Influence In International Relations History Essay

1. When one refers to country like China the first thing which comes into mind is country of old civilisation and hard work. The word China or ‘Shina’ in Chinese means the middle country and is pronounced as ‘Zhon Ghua’. It is in a reference to the Chinese faith that their state was the geographical epicenter of the earth and the oldest true evolution of humankind. One of the most noteworthy growths after the cold war is perhaps the rapid progress in China’s economic potential and the subsequent national power it has begun to exert. Since the initiation of economic reforms and trade liberalization 30 years ago, China has been the world’s fastest growing economies and emerged as a major economic trade power. The Chinese economy has been maintaining an average growth rate of about eight percent per annum for the last two decades. Today China has become the second largest economy in the world.  The concurrent modernisation of the People’s Liberation Army would enable China to assert its perceived rightful place in near future, as the next super power after the United States of America.

2. The late eighties in last century saw a lot of political and economic changes, Iran- Iraq war, unification of Germany and the rise of concept of European Union which itself was changing the world order. The most important of the event was disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union in 1991 which resulted in disassembling of the bipolar formation. This resulted in emergence of a unipolar world which was totally dominated by the United States of America (USA). During the early nineties though the USA was sole super power in the world, China was seen as the potential to emerge as rising economic and military power who is going to bring bi/multi polarity in near future.

3. Ever since its creation the People’s Republic of China has sought to increase its power in relation to its regional neighbours and other international powers, especially the United States and the now defunct Soviet Union. It did not take long for the Chinese Communists to amply demonstrate their importance in regional and international stability with their intervention in the Korean War. As China's invasions of Tibet and Vietnam demonstrate its Communist regime will take military action when it considers it necessary. However to a large extent China's rise has been based upon avoiding military actions although it is not averse to causing regional and international instability. Whilst China has attempted successfully to become a major economic power it has not reduced its powerful armed forces, or stopped its support for rogue states and that does worry its neighbours, especially Taiwan. The realists who express concerns about the threat posed by China's rise claim it is potentially dangerous due to the decline of the United States and its own unpredictable foreign policy, not to mention its backing of countries that are also determined to undermine global stability.2

4. One of the greatest challenges the West now faces is how to get China, a habitual free rider, to pull its weight on international issues. Ever since the country reemerged as a great power in the last decade, the United States and Europe have courted it, hoping that if China's leaders felt they held a stake in the existing world order, they would work to sustain it. But things haven't worked out that way. The recent Chinese hacker attack on Google, which underscored Beijing's efforts to suppress information, was only the latest example of China's rejection of global norms. At the Copenhagen climate conference in December 2009, the country's opposition to mandatory carbon cuts helped eviscerate an agreement. Economically, China's refusal to strengthen its currency is threatening the global recovery. On Iran, Beijing has repeatedly rebuffed the West's call for tougher measures, putting its own interests (Tehran is one of its key energy suppliers) above nonproliferation. The more likely explanation for the country's obstreperousness is that despite its rise, China is no more comfortable with the Western-led international system now than it was 10 years ago. The Communist Party still openly rejects democracy and human rights, and U.S. leadership is viewed as a reality-but an illegitimate and unfortunate one. Yet the days when China can have it both ways-freeload on global public goods while enjoying international respect-are about to end. Disillusionment with its self-serving policies is setting in. As Google shows, even some multinational corporations are beginning to openly challenge Beijing, and many more are secretly applauding Google's defiance. Similarly, Western governments are cracking down, levying anti-dumping charges against Chinese exports and contemplating other retaliatory measures if Beijing keeps its current exchange-rate policy. China's image has also taken a beating because of its lack of cooperation on climate change. 3

5. The Beijing’s response to any international problem has been, first we will help our self then we will help the world. The result is emerging tension between the international community and China. Become of the huge economic rise of China, she has become a truly global actor. Is Beijing ready for global leadership? Is a question which keeps haunting the international community. China’s policy makers regularly point out that their foreign policy serves domestic goals of reform and development. The world wants China to do more while Beijing gingerly gropes its way forward with its newfound status, influence, responsibilities, expectations and constraints.4

6. China’s increasing interest and engagement in South Asia, Including in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has been manifest in recent years. Indeed, the Chinese invariable asserts China is linked to South Asia by mountains and rivers. However, the Chinese occupation of Tibet and declaring certain parts of India and Bhutan as part of China raises suspicion over her influence in Asia. The twenty-first century has the potential to be known as the “Asian Century.” India and China are simultaneously gaining salience in the international relations. The unfriendly foreign approach of China especially, covert support of military and nuclear hardware to Pakistan, staple visas to Kashmir, growing military bases all around Indian border and unresolved border dispute has been seen as a threat to Indian peace and economic growth. How does India deal with growing influence of China in around its neighbouring countries? Is a big challenge for India.

7. Post disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union, the impressive rise of China as an economic and military power has resulted in changes to the unipolar world dominated by USA and lead to the formation of a bi/multi polar world. China has grown as great actor, in influencing international relationship. This paper seeks to analyse the effect of China’s rise as an economic and military power and its role in the international relationship, including the impact on India.

7. The end of this century has seen sleeping dragon as phenomena, the rise of a major economic and military power of the world. She has already become the second largest economy in the world. The China’s growth and its influence on economic powers of the world, its strategic collaboration with various countries have changed the new world order. China as an economic and military power has result in changes to the unipolar world dominated by USA and lead to the formation of a bi/multi polar world. Her status permanent member of the United Nation Security Council (UNSC), most power member of World Trade Organisation and Association of South East Asian Nation indicates her potential national power and influence on the international relationship.

8.         Considering the China’s growing demand of Oil, food grains and natural resources, she is mainly dependent on Africa and littoral countries of Indian Ocean region. China understands the importance of geo-strategic position India in an Indian Ocean region and capability of India to choke the trade routes. Therefore China is influencing her relationship in South Asian region in a big way, by establishing military and economic bases in an around India.

9. Post disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union, the impressive rise of China as an economic and military power has resulted in a major impact on the growing influence of China on international relationship. The growing interest of China in Africa and South Asia, her perception of India as her potential competitor in new world order has great impact on her relationship with India.

10. The scope of the dissertation is intended to be limited as under: -

(a) Rising Red Dragon. In this section it is intended to analyse China's rising power as economic and military giant.

(b)   China and its influence on World. In this section, it is intended to study the various measures taken by China to influence international relationship, her positive or negative impact on world order, is she ready for global leadership?

(c)    China’s impact in South Asia. In this section, it is intended to bring out the impact of China’s rise as a super power in South Asia and her dependence of Indian Ocean region.

(d) Sino-Indian Relationship. In this section, it is intended to analyse the impact of greater Chinese influence in South Asia on India, her strategy to keep the economic and military rise of India under her influence.

11.         The information for this dissertation has been gathered through

study of various books, periodicals and journals available at Defence Services Staff College (DSSC) library. Bibliography of the sources is appended at the end of the text. In addition the medium of INTERNET has also been exploited extensively to gather latest information on the subject.

12.      It is proposed to study the subject under the following sections: -

(a)  Introduction and Methodology.

(b)  Rise of Sleeping Dragon.

(c) China’s Growing impact on international relations in the new world order.

(d) Chinese impact in South Asia.

(e) Sino - India relationship.

(f)    Conclusion.



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Eisenhower And His Logistical Problem History Essay

 


The second problem for Eisenhower's, and perhaps more pressing was the logistical problem. Something had to be done about the long supply lines. The fuel shortages and insufficient transportation had to be dealt with first. The Allies were receiving supplies through the beaches of Normandy but there was a shortage of trucks to transport the necessities to the armies. The deteriorating weather was making unloading the supplies on the landing beaches almost impossible. Ike urgently required a deep-water port to move supplies to the battlefront. Additionally, as the Germans moved back they destroyed most of shipping infrastructure on the coastal harbors.


The regular wrangling and competition amongst Ike's generals aggravated the situation. Other Generals profiled Montgomery as difficult. His pitch for a single thrust operation strengthened the animosity feelings. Montgomery ceaselessly complained to Ike about the quantity of supplies his soldiers received. He was constantly pressing for precedence on fuel and ammunition.


After Ike assumed personal command of the ground operations in Europe, the state of affairs deteriorated. A divisive command problem arose out of this decision. Montgomery could not be appointed the Supreme Allied forces commander due to political reasons. This was despite the fact that he was a distinguished military leader with experience from not only North Africa but also in Overlord. Montgomery wanted to be appointed the ground armies commander and lobbied Ike hard for the same. Eisenhower chose to retain the duty and as such, he continually met open defiance from Montgomery and a few number of his British Generals. Montgomery imagined that he was a more qualified commander and for this together with the command and control issue, antagonistically opposed Eisenhower on almost all-tactical decisions. This explicit contempt created a lot more tension, distrust, and turmoil in the Allied camp. Up until now, a very patient Eisenhower never acted on Montgomery. It was after Market Garden commenced that he threatened to escalate the issue to Marshall and Churchill. Montgomery's Chief of Staff at last settled the matter before Ike escalated it hence sparing Montgomery the sack.


General Eisenhower approved to the Montgomery plan on 4 September after review. This was in part an attempt to calm and tone down the belligerent Montgomery and chiefly as after realization that it was a chance for him to seize a deep-water port. The Market Garden plan was audacious and risky. It was uncharacteristic of the usually conservative Montgomery. After the approval, Ike provided General Montgomery with semi permanent fuel and ammunition supply priority. He then moved the US 1st Army commanded by General Hodges to the British southern line, until Antwerp was secured by the Allies. He wanted the remaining Nazi resistance on the ports of Antwerp and Le Havre cleared. This would give his forces the vital deep-water ports, hence considerably reducing the time of delivery for important war reserve resources to the front line forces.


The sustainment essential for the next stage of the operations, that is, the march into Germany and the seizure of Berlin, had to be covered. This was dependent upon successful capture of a port with a capacity of supporting a force of over two million men. Antwerp was the only European port capable of that. Montgomery was incensed with the proposal of a double thrust, which incorporated the Saar valley. On September 4, Montgomery captured the port of Antwerp. Ike then, against the wishes of his staff, allowed Montgomery to move into Belgium without clearing the pockets of Nazi resistance in Scheldt Estuary. He was also convinced by Montgomery to permit Market Garden to go ahead as scheduled instead of delaying the operation to clear the port as was proposed by Bradley and Patton.


The Operation


On 17 September, in the afternoon, Operation Market Garden commenced. The American 101st airborne division parachuted on the southern end while the American 82nd Airborne dropped to the north and attacked the Waal River Bridge at Nijmegen. The British First Airborne division together with the Polish brigade attacked their target, the bridges at Arnhem, further north. After all the three airborne divisions were on the ground, the British XXX Corps embarked on their assault and drove up the road. It was estimated that the XXX Corps would take no more than 3 days to arrive at the British at Arnhem. For the previous Allied airborne operations, drop zones for the paratroopers and gliders were as a rule of thumb as close to the target as could be so to elicit maximum surprise and to allow the enemy less reaction time to recover. The American drop zones for this offensive were no different. However, the British First airborne drop zones were far away from the target, i.e., the crucial bridges. They wanted to circumvent taking casualties to their planes by flying over what they imagined might be anti-aircraft guns concentration in the area. The bridges were in built-up zones so gliders could of course not land. Additionally the ground to the south of the bridges was imagined by the British generals to be too soft for gliders - entirely discounting the fact that the Polish paratroopers would be dropping in the very same zone later.


The drop zone selections led to the landing of some paratroopers of the First Airborne on top of the Nazi 10th SS Panzer Division. After landing, divisional radio sets were found to be tuned into the wrong frequencies. This made radio communication between units impossible. A small part of the British troopers’ contingent took the main Arnhem highway bridge on the north end. However, intense battle barred reinforcement for this small force. On the southern end of the river, the ninth SS Panzer controlled the bridge’s other end. Finally, the small British army at the bridge gave way to the superior Nazi forces. The rest of the division resiliently hung on in a small pocket on the river’s north a few miles away from the bridge. The polish troopers who parachuted on the south side of the river could not provide any significant backing. They merely fought to save their lives against the now fully alerted Nazi forces.


The first day was aeronautically splendid for an airdrop. As the days went on, the weather conditions deteriorated. The second wave was unable to drop for a further four more days. To the south, the first gains of the 82nd and 101st divisions Grave and Nijmegen seized bridges with minimal losses. The American 82nd Airborne took the Nijmegen Bridge the execution of an audacious river crossing in collapsible boats to assault and seize the bridge from the back. However, the XXX Corps joined them after number of days had passed. The highway connecting the bridges up to Arnhem steadily under counter attack by the Nazi forces and this caused many delays. Sections of this highway, to make matters worse, resembled an island on a dike and had with no maneuvering room. A single shot that took out the lead tank in a column could lead a delay going on for hours. Adequate infantry was not allocated to escort the tanks that were in the leading columns. It was taken that the American paratroopers would take up this task. However, the Americans had their own worries of keeping the corridor free of the Nazi attacks. This compromised the progress of XXX Corps after they crossed the Nijmegen Bridge and came to deal with the "island road". More infantry was required; however, it was just not obtainable. As a result, XXX Corps assault stalled. The British First Airborne, on their part, just a few miles away across the river, was being chewed to bits. In time, the British First Airborne had to be withdrawn and evacuated from their front on the Lower Rhine through an audacious night rescue operation.


The intention to oust the Nazi and perhaps end the Second World War by charismas had gone up in smoke. After nine days of fierce battle, the Allies withdrew. Incapable of rescuing their captured personnel, a large number of casualties and prisoners had to be forsaken.


The Final Analysis


The outcome rendered the Market Garden a nonviable operation. The objective was attainable but the strategy was full of flaws. For starters, the idea ended up to be hard one. The planners imagined that seizing the bridges would be as easy the seizure of the French bridges. Montgomery and the Allies, however, misjudged the incredible tenacity of Hitler and his Nazi army. Intelligence reports that Hitler soldiers along the Alhert Canal in Belgium, the Siegfried Line and in Arnhem had re-armed were received but disregarded by Montgomery. Additionally, Eisenhower was informed about the Nazi fortification; however, he did not personally challenge the plan on the bases of the intelligence reports. Alternatively, he opted to send Bedell Smith to Montgomery. Montgomery laughed of the idea of the aim was difficult simply for the reason that there were reports of Nazi tank potency at Arnhem. He would hear nothing about revising Market Garden  . Montgomery did not realize that there was a terrain and topography variation between the lower Rhine and France. This meant the fact that a similar operation succeeded in France did not imply it would succeed in Holland. Roads were usually constricted and constructed on top of dikes. Road sections that were not raised flooded regularly slowing movements due to the clay mud. Additionally, the swampy, muddy land made maneuvering of the heavy gear hard. Ignoring his staff’s counsel and Dempsey's apprehension for a well-timed meeting with the paratroopers, Montgomery stubbornly pushed forward.


Had intelligence report been paid attention to, the operation may perhaps have been discontinued or at least deferred. The narrow corridor did not afford Dempsey much room for maneuver and restricted his flexibility and ability to pull a surprise. In addition, the strategy was devoid of any air component except fighter escort and gliders transports. Modest coalition coordination was exercised in the preparation for operation Market Garden. Montgomery simply passed on the plan to his men for implementation. When Major General Maxwell Taylor voiced his oppositions to the landing zone for his men, Montgomery replied that was too late for the plan to be changed. Major Gen Roy Urquhart met the same lack of cooperation  . The strategy employed presumed that enough petroleum and ammunition would be available to carry out the plan. Montgomery was interested more in Bradley and Patton's fuel instead of taking the time to drive out the Nazi from the Scheldt Estuary. Seizing Scheldt would have opened up Antwerp to supplies for the Allied. Further, Bradley and Patton's to the south could have diverted the Nazi manpower and resources and that would support Ike's extensive front approach.


Not only was the strategy flawed, the resources were inadequate too. First, it was tactically naïve and logistically erroneous to move through Antwerp without weakening pockets of Nazi resistance. The Nazi fight back proved heavy more so in the Scheldt Estuary, the key North Sea access. This barrier was not removed until November 1944. The failure to do so deprived the Allies of the badly required deep-water port. This reduced logistics lines and it was a blow to any more operations in Germany’s interior. The inability to get rid of resistance also hindered Dempsey's movement since he had to reroute combat troops to guard his flank.


The airdrop was logistically hindered by having inadequate aircraft (transport and glider) to make a single jump as Montgomery's plan called for. The First Airborne even lacked sufficient radios for communication within themselves. When the second wave finally arrived, it was ill equipped to deal with the Panzer SS toughened threat. Bad weather caused the second wave delay foiling their plans of landing on D-Day. Though the weather conditions were fine for the first drop, it caused resupply and reinforcements delays for the Arnhem troops. The Germans took advantage of the poor weather exploiting the time to reinforce their manpower and other resources to respond to the Allies. As such, the aspect of Market Garden considered being the operation strength, the crack paratroopers, ended up limiting the Allied success severely. Montgomery's casual outlook toward the opposition meant the failure of the most effective tool available to the Operation. It is incomprehensible why Montgomery chose to pay no attention to his brilliant and experienced men. He casually dismissed justifiable issues raised by experienced infantry and airborne officers. Major General Stanislaw Sosabowski articulated his fears to Montgomery that the plan to land his troops at Arnhem was catastrophic and that higher-ranking officers were culpable of reckless overconfidence  . Officers could do nothing to change his position and only sat in quiet frustration and follow orders. The only officer reputed to be capable of swaying Montgomery, Major General Freddie De Guingand, was outside Europe.


It is important to point out that even though Montgomery was seen to be arrogant, it might have been with a good reason. He had been commanding ground forces during triumphant North African operation and Operation Overlord. To be fair to Montgomery, the Allies as a group exhibited this same overconfidence. They had been calmed into this joint cockiness and arrogance due to the swiftness with which their conquest came. The excitement of the operation led men to calm down extremely. Exhaustion and loss of focus started creeping on the mission. As evidenced by the consequent preparation and logistical shortfalls of the operation, the intelligence was misleading and gave the impression that the Nazi were severely weakened. With no sense of pressure, acute fatigue, and the consequent loss of focus, situations came up where troops moved with insufficient resources. The impetus and thrilling buoyancy by the Allied victories changed the force from what would have been a success, into an exaggerated and unfocused bunch thereby sustaining major and avoidable losses of gear and personnel.


The strategy demanded the army to grab the initiative and hit speedily and surprise the worn out and inadequately prepared Nazi. Hitler, in hindsight, had correctly expected that Montgomery would head north to the Zuider Zee. He countered by placing Field Marshall Walter Model, his strongest general, in that front. Model at once lined up troops and started efforts to re-arm for the expected battle. He coordinated strategic barricading of highways and canals, and took the advantage of the weather and the Allies lack of the capacity to resupply and reinforce. He not only was able to hold the Arnhem Bridge, but also the city. His vigor and organizational brilliance were the reason the Nazi was able to hold off Market Garden.


To sum up this misadventure, the timing required to scheme a speedy thrust was uncoordinated due to the unanticipated fight back by committed Nazi soldiers; the failure to drop the second batch of paratroopers owing to bad weather; the utter disregard with which intelligence reports were met with; and the poor communication. A combination of these factors created the worst Allied defeats of the time.


Lessons from the defeat


Operation Market Garden, without a doubt the biggest paratroop drop of its time, was also one of the most terrible operational failures. What strategy, or lack of it, could have resulted to such an unbelievable failure for the Allies? What lessons learned can apply to the contemporary and future military operations? Some timeless lessons are evident from the operations’ analysis:


The first lesson applies at the strategic level. That it is necessary for military planners to stay focused on the political causes of a war. They must by no means lose sight of the political motivation of the primary conflict. The states political will and national interests will always play a major role in the coalition strategy development. For the reason that the US contributed the greater part of machinery, manpower, and finances to the Allied war effort, Eisenhower's appointment ahead of Montgomery as the ultimate Allied Commander was logical. He was always sensitive to political and higher-ranking military bosses, above all Roosevelt, Churchill, and Marshall. His focus was completely on the Allies’ goal of "total surrender." A skilled professional, Eisenhower never allowed the egoistical and individual aspirations of any of his generals sidetrack him from trying to realize that goal. He took note and considered Montgomery's views and thoughts but remained the designer of the multi-pronged assault tactic.


On the operational level, two lessons can be learned from the Market Garden operation defeat. First, planning and coordinating fully with all elements of an operation is of fundamental importance for the successful implementation of any plan. Whether these elements are ground or air their coordination is necessary for the plan to be executed successfully. In the Market Garden operation, planners, for example, did not consider the fighter or bomber cover or ground bombing to weaken the target area prior to the airdrop. Additionally, no one reviewed the plan when Montgomery got information that there were inadequate transport aircraft to see through the drop on day one. Definitely there would have been a change in the plan had fighter together with transport planning expertise been incorporated in initial and ensuing planning. Secondly, it can be learned that logistics shortages caused and can still cause the troops to be un-prepared. Port of Antwerp opening, or delay by a few days could have probably alleviated the occurrence of debacles like the delivery of the inappropriate ammunition and the shortage of working radios. A wholly coordinated plan combined with better logistical support might have had a different result.


The most important lesson that can be learned emerges at the tactical level. Commanders must learn to understand their soldiers and recognize their worries and concerns. They must be able to analyze their collective behavior and be prepared to step in to keep them focused on the eventual goal, that is, the completion of the operation satisfactorily. Without taking a break, Dempsey's soldiers had marched since Overlord, traversing through Northwestern France and fighting very tough resistance. Logistics and supply channels could barely be kept up. The resulting effect was severe food, shelter, and ammunitions shortages. A disadvantage of the Allies haste in pushing the Nazis back manifested itself as arrogance and over-confidence in the troops. Focus on the primary mission was lost, a development that proved to be catastrophic. Reading and understanding the troops is a basic aspect of a solid leadership even in the contemporary times.


Finally, from a leadership perspective, the lesson that great leaders must be ready to forfeit their own ambitions to support the unit efforts and the triumphant completion of the mission is drawn. Eisenhower and Montgomery, though accomplished soldiers, were miles apart in leadership style and personality. Eisenhower, the Allied supreme Commander, appreciated the political consequences and sensitivities of the Allies alliance. Montgomery, on the contrary, as the legendary leader of Overlord only saw the British viewpoint and failed to appreciate the shared command. He could not appreciate why the USA, being the major provider of both financial and materiel and the manpower support, was not willing to let the British lead the Allied attack on Berlin. He did not appreciate that had the USA, having provided all those resources, allowed him to act on his way and yet fail, it could have led to a crisis in the Allies camp.


Confusion and dissention amid the Allied top command created troubles as well. Montgomery openly disagreed with Ike on issues such as the suitability of a single thrust vice broad front strategy and the presence of a ground forces commander. He was critical of Ike's tactical verdicts and directives in the strongest possible terms. He did so in a very defiant manner that Ike was obligated to interrupt. Many junior commanders in the Allied forces were of the opinion that Montgomery's actions justified removal. Eisenhower, nonetheless, in full realization that he was indebted to listen to the British Allies, did not remove him. He held that he needed to let Montgomery have his right to express his views fully. Though this shows the sensitivity of Eisenhower to the Allied coalition, it frustrated other Allied generals.


The failure by Montgomery to take full advantage of his staff’s talents and to seek advice from with his fellow general on Market Garden planning show him as a solitary thinker and that he had tendencies of not seeking his staff’s assistance in developing operational plans. On the other hand, Ike consulted his troops and regularly shared with his field commanders on their plan’s operational implications. He worked in concert with his staff to solve problems and outlined the solution to General George Marshall and Prime Minister Winston Churchill frequently prior to their implementation. It is almost incomprehensible why Montgomery did not synchronize with the airborne commanders or ask for fighter support alongside the transport escort. A coordination between him and his peers would have averted loses through communicating with each other to contain the logistical failures or a realignment of transport and combat resources to avail sufficient numbers for the accomplishment of the mission.


It is evident that leadership styles and personalities were a major cause of the Market Garden failure. Pride and national interests, together with military considerations, determine success or lack of it in any operation. The Operation Market Garden’s lessons are universal and timeless. They are a forewarning to leaders at any organizational level. Be it an emergency operation or a full-blown conflict, these valuable lessons must form the foundation by which leaders will be developed to lead the operation and form a successful strategy.



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Emergence Of Urban Life History Essay

 


From as far back as 4000 BC there was evidence of city life emerging in countries such as Turkey and Iraq and through time, more countries followed suit with cities emerging in several destinations worldwide. The cities however in Medieval Europe had different criteria than those in the United States or Los Angeles. As Latham et al, (2009), acknowledges the medieval European cities were defined by whether a city wall was constructed and permitted by the local nobility the United States was distinguished by an urban area that controlled powers of self government while Los Angeles or Chicago were made up of incorporated cities, ‘cities of cities’, (D.Massey, 2005). For the purpose of this essay, the focus will begin with the trends and causes of the growth of cities, which lead to growth of suburbanisation and its consequences this has in terms of ,,,,,,


Although cities had been long established prior to the Industrial Revolution in the 1800’s, it was from the revolution that cities developed sophistication, a complexity in technology, and an economic change with urban growth. With the development of technology concentrations of populations began to leave rural areas as agriculture machinery took over labour positions and clusters emerged around factories and industry. By the 1900’s the structure and design of a city was very basic, it consisted of a central city; dense built up area and the suburbs; less dense located outside the legal boundary. Since the first emergence of urbanisation many models have been put forward to describe the trends that developed in urbanisation and sub-urbanisation patterns, with some theories more substantial than others. Latham et al, (2009) citesChristaller, Burgess, Hoyt, Harris and Ullman (year) each argue that ‘cities have a discernible internal structure, usually based upon access to markets and a tendency for activity to cluster in central places’Some of the more developed and acknowledged hypothesis will be outlined in the next section of this essay.


Urbanisation resulted in three revolutions, the agricultural, urban and industrial revolution. The shift from rural to urban saw a present day trend where, urban population is world dominated with its populations growing two and a half times faster than rural populations. One of the main characteristics in defining an urbanised area is the size. In 1950 only one mega city existed with a population between 5 and 10 million, in 1990, 12 such cities existed. In the year 2000, Tokyo had a concentration of 27 million people. Each country varies with its criterion for cities and mega cities figures with the United Nations granting the authority and verdict upon each country. Ireland as a small country in Europe has been given the figures of; populations exceeding 1,500 are categorised as cities or large town and areas below that figure are categorised as rural.


According to Wirth (year), the shift from rural to urban has taken place within the span of a single generation in industrialised areas such as the United States and Japan. Over 100 years a large part of the Western world has become urbanised with an increase of thirty fold between 1800 and 1960. Up until the 1950’s there continued to be an increase of growth in the city centre, however from the 1950’s onwards the trend shifted to the growth of the suburbs.


A trend that can be seen in the largest megacities are their rapid growth, Pacione (2005) notes that ‘the average population of the world’s largest cities was over 5 million inhabitants in 1990, compared with 2.1 million in 1950, and less than 200,000 in 1800, with the growth seen particularly in the less developed countries’. However, this does not always remain constant as the trends in population differ from the node or city centre to the fringe of the cities. This trend of suburbanisation was particularly evident in advanced countries between 1965 and 1990. Geyer and Kontuly (1993) formulated a theory to explain the pattern seen with large intermediate-size and small cities going through successive periods of fast and slow growth in a cycle of development. Over time a city goes through three phases; primate, intermediate and a small city phase. Source for this.


Primate city phase, the population increases in the dominant city. This phase can be further divided into three sub stages, early, intermediate and late. Mark Jefferson, (1939), believed that a primate city was at least twice as large as the next largest city. An example of a primate city can be seen in Paris (population of 9.6 million while Marseille has a population of 1.3 million) with a population of which is dominant to the country and is the country’s national focal point. With the intermediate city phase polarisation reversal is evident and it is at this stage that we can see the development of suburbanisation growing faster than the central city. The final stage in the urbanisation cycle is the small city phase which is a continuation of the intermediate city, until saturation point is reached in urban areas and there is a de-concentralisation of population from urban to rural. After this phase the cycle begins again. This however is not the rule for the trends of development of all suburbanisation zones. According to Garnier (1971) ‘Rome was once a city without suburbs. It was almost non-industrialised and grew all at once; the neighbouring countryside devastated by malaria, offered no rural centres from which suburbs might have grown. In order that suburbs may form, a certain expansion of urban life is necessary’,


Generally suburbanisation zone expanded from the push of the city outwards. It can be defined by the legal boundaries, the relative density of population and the facilities on terms of distance and cost. The belt of population found in the suburbs however must have a dependent relationship with the city itself.


There are driving forces of suburbanisation, demand factors such as a personal preference to live in the suburbs, lower density living, open space, less traffic, cleaner air or a different style of living. In the south of where? the re-distribution of population was caused with the rise of ‘the sunbelt’, the argument was that people were moving in search of better climates. By the 1950’s 48% of central cities in the US were losing population and a new trend was emerging as the population decline was beginning to spread out.


Two main forms of population decentralisation have been identified. According to Pacione (2005) The first, counterurbanisation or urban deconcentration, which is characterised by net its population movement from metropolitan regions into smaller urban regions and rural areas that lie beyond the primary commuter-sheds of the major cities. The second, suburbanisation, which reflects a long established centrifugal movement of population which progressively has involved a broader range of urban functions than just housing taking place over longer distances, as personal mobility has grown and urban centres have expanded to embrace their previous hinterlands,). In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s the average out migration from metropolitan cities averaged around 90,000 people per year, (a rate of 0.5%). To understand why there is a shift in population pattern this essay will refer to the Burgees Model, which was based on Chicago in the 1920,s, as seen in figure 1 overleaf


Figure 1, Burgees Model


Source http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/images/set_005.gif (accessed March 2010)


Burgees proposes that class progression is evident as one moves from the core but it is continuously changing as most immigrants and young footloose people move to the centre initially but as the working class become move successful, they move up the ladder and outward on the model to the middle class, as seen in Germany.


Applying this model to Ireland, focusing on Limerick, each stage will be linked to Limericks contrast between the urban and suburban areas.


Zone A represents the Central Business District (CBD), where the competition for land is high resulting in high sky scraper buildings, large multi stories buildings and high rise apartment blocks, with the main focus on commercial and non basic workers, meeting the needs of cities inhabitants with Banks, accountants and administration offices, that can been seen on O’Connell Street and Henry Street.


The second zone of transition usually tends to house the lower class population and is often subsidised with the interference of city councils and light manufacturing industry. In Limerick the zone of transition reflects high rented accommodation from local authorities, lower educated population and a high percentage of semi skilled and unskilled workforces, Roxboro which held the German household appliance factory until 1998.


The next stage in the concentric zone model shows the working class, blue collar residential are moving towards suburban living. As larger industries are moving out to the fringe of the core due to rental costs, transport and access to interurban transport and motorways (M20 and M7) , the residents are focusing on the concepts of commuting costs and are locating near to these industrial parks. This was most evident in the Raheen Industrial Estate, with companies such as Analog and Dell employing thousands of local employees creating a rapid development in the surrounding residential areas, Dooradoyle, Raheen, Caherdavin. With the development of networking and improved infrastructure cities are connected but also, it provides a peripheral bypass around these cities, ‘these peripheral arteries provide access among suburbs and reduce the geographical advantage of a central business district’. This results in developers expanding in the suburbs with offices, corporation buildings and shopping centres creating further jobs for suburban dwellers.


Finally, the middle class and high class housing in the next stage of Burgees zone, represents a personal preference among residents to accommodate for an acquired lifestyle. ‘Some people want to live with people like themselves, which causes a clustering called congregation’, seen often among the middle class residence. ‘Some live together because discrimination forces them to do so. These suffer from segregation from others’, Bregman & Renwick (2008). Although segregated schooling was abolished in the 1950’s, segregation in housing was rapidly increasing. In the final two zones the standard of housing is much higher as land is less valuable and the residences can avail of more land for value. As the Von Thunem model–Mills Model states, land has no intrinsic value, land used to generate products and the profit of the products holds the value. Where land is of equal value, the only difference is the distance from the centre. Alonso’s bid-rent function states that higher income families have the possibility of locating in the suburbs due to the cost of open land and are less constrained than lower income groups to avail of space, tranquillity, cleaner air and a different lifestyle of living examples in Limerick relate to Annacotty and Ennis road.


From this one can conclude that Burgees ecological theory on sub urbanisation has be caused and driven by factors such as competition, dominance, invasion and succession. This theory was later developed and advanced by geographers such as Hoyt, considering distance and direction from the city centre to have an important influence, and Harris and Ullman adapted Burgees concept but believed that urban growth did not extend from one single node but multiple points or nuclei, such as train stations and market areas within the city. All theories however can be connected to the city expansion and the suburbanisation of urban life.


Advances however in technology are retracting the dependency need of the population on the city with virtual shopping and telecommuting, more people can communicate through the comfort of their homes. This also provides many occupations the option of working from home via the use of computer terminals.


The initial attraction of urbanisation was to escape the hectic over crowded industrialised city life and experience greenness and openness, however due to the urban sprawl, cities spread out and rapidly ‘broke their banks’ with the loss of agricultural land, as seen in North Dublin. Another problem encountered from suburbanisation was congestion problems as more people were willing to commute long distances to their workplace in order to experience a better quality of family life, which in turn added to the continuous green house effects of carbon pollution. According to Kahn, (2000), in the US ‘suburban households drive 31 percent more than their urban counterparts, and western households drive 35 percent more miles than northeastern households’


Initially governments favoured the idea of suburbanisation and offered many tax incentives and a fiscal system as incentives for city dwellers to relocate. But this lead to a fiscal crisis as the city couldn’t pay for services that were required on the fringes, such as water supply and footpaths. It also led to a crisis within the retail services. In Ireland during the late 1980’s and early 1990’s the government intervened as the economy suffered high rates of employment and out migration. The city was being to experience an extensive abandonment that had also been a result in industries moving to Greenfield sites in suburban areas. With the dereliction of one site a ripple effect occurred leaving several buildings vacated bringing about the urban re-newal scheme. Tax breaks were introduced for developers to construct or reconstruct with the core centre and occupiers were offered double trade allowance against trading income to revitalises the city again. Allowances were also available for house purchasers and local authority rates for rented accommodation through the fiscal system providing sites?’. Initially there were five cities targeted, Waterford, Cork, Limerick, Dublin and Galway in 1986. In 1995 this figure extended to thirty five areas with Temple bar in Dublin and the Custom House Dock area in Dublin being two of the success stories. Up to 2.2 billion euro’s was invested in the scheme and another one billion in the pipeline. The highest investment in the scheme was seen in Limerick.


In 1999 another similar scheme was put in place to address the issues that were not targeted in the first scheme, however it receive a lot of negative criticism as it did not tackle the social economic problems.


Segregation and alienation is another major consequence of suburbanisation as Latham et Al, (2009) acknowledge, ‘in the United Kingdom ethnic minorities are concentrated in the inner areas of large cities, as they are in many German cities, in France they are so called ‘Banlieue’ areas characterised by high levels of poverty and large immigration populations’, producing a homogeneous population.


Suburbanization has become a status address to many residences that choose certain locations to fulfill a desire and standard of living suitable to them and their families. In the words of Nobel laureate James Buchanan, (1994)“The romance of socialism, which is dependent both on an idealized politics and a set of impossible behavioral presuppositions, has not yet disappeared.”


Suburban life that is often envisaged by people may not always be captured as the desire has been so great that it has become saturated, recreating the original issues that residence were once escaping from. As noted by Putnam, 1970, “when there is such a great discrepancy between ideology and reality, it is usually wise to admit that a concept is outmoded and to begin anew’.



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Hindutva Ideology In The Gujarat Riots Of 2002 History Essay

The area I had chosen for this assignment was ‘Philosophy’. My ruminations on this area have finally led me to the ideology of the Hindu right-wing radicals of our country. Their ideology has ever perplexed me and challenged my thought process. What is their motivation to indulge in acts of violence as projected by the popular media? What makes them radical in the first place? What makes them virulently defend the concept of a Hindu Rashtra?

The motivation of the Hindutva brigade is the same as that of various other groups involved in armed religious struggle- the perception of a threat to their religion and therefore to their very identity. The spread of rumours and misinformation does much to fan the pent up fury of such groups, and it is not long before mayhem breaks loose.

The articles I have chosen for this assignment deal with various facets of the issue of Hindutva. They are not merely from 2002, but also even as recent as 2008. As one finishes reading this assignment, I hope that he/she gets a fair idea of the mindset of those that belong to the Hindutva brigade.

The six articles I originally chose are sourced from magazines, journals and newspapers. They are ‘Hedged in by Hindutva again’, ‘Hindutva Talibanization’, ‘The Hindutva Experiment’, ‘At a Hindutva factory’, ‘PM seeks RSS help’ and ‘Modi held meeting before 2002 riots’.

I chose ‘Hedged in by Hindutva again’, ‘Hindutva Talibanization’ and ‘The Hindutva Experiment’ as I believe that they are the most relevant to the aspect of Hindutva ideology, and provide a window to understanding the movement that seeks a nation of the Hindus. These articles provide a standpoint on the Hindutva issue from three divergent viewpoints- the viewpoint of an atheist, the viewpoint of a Pakistani Muslim, and the viewpoint of a neutral scholar who is a Hindu.

‘At a Hindutva factory’, ‘PM seeks RSS help’ and ‘Modi held meeting before 2002 riots’ were not shortlisted on account of the fact they do not deal directly with the issue of Hindutva ideology, although they provide us glimpses of it.

My experience in this assignment has been one of a learner; many of my wrong assumptions with regard to religious fundamentalism have been corrected, and I am now able to realistically visualize the requirements of a harmonious society.

It is my fervent prayer that no more Gujarats happen in the future, although I have my doubts if this society we live in will be able to break free of the spiralling communal sentiments.

I have rewritten this article for my subordinates. Khushwant Singh clarifies, in this article, the feeling on the part of a large number of political observers in the country, that Hindutva is no longer a force of substance. He explains that the Indians’ general mistrust of foreign elements and religions remains, and that the BJP has cleverly used such sentiments to its advantage in the political arena. The article is an eye-opener on Hindutva. What follows is my rewrite of the article.

The defeat of the Congress party in elections in Himachal Pradesh and Gujarat has changed the Indian political scene. The BJP now is in power in more states in India than any other party. The Communist and regional parties continue to hold on to their bastions whilst Mayawati’s BSP rules the largest state in India, Uttar Pradesh.

The Congress party’s moral authority to rule the country has been seriously eroded. It must rethink on whether it should hold out for its full term or if it should call for fresh general elections to renew its favour with the electorate. The party presents a grim picture with only one woman as its all-India vote catcher.

We were wrong in taking for granted that Hindutva was no longer a serious concept and that the BJP had nothing to offer with regard to economic and industrial development. The BJP has both and Hindutva gives it a strong talking point in elections.

We need to soul-search why appeal to religion holds such a great part in our lives; we pretend to be secular but are xenophobic- we dislike foreign elements.

Our xenophobia started with our encounters with the foreign colonizers of our country. The first were the Muslims, and despite the best attempts of their converted descendants to Indianize themselves, they were looked at resentfully by the natives. Then came the Europeans who brought Christianity.

Our freedom movement first stood up to the British. Mahatma Gandhi did his best to keep separate the suspicion against the British and the Muslims. His efforts were however made futile by the majority of Muslims who supported partition. His death at the hands of Hindu radicals and the policies of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru kept the Hindu resentment against Muslims subdued. The coming of the Sangh Parivar changed matters.

The BJP is the chief beneficiary of the change in national affairs. Its leaders, and especially L.K. Advani, incited the Hindutva brigade to destroy the Babri Masjid. They are still unapologetic and atleast three more mosques remain in the hit-list of the right-wing radicals.

The Hindutva brigade’s attention has now turned to the Christians. Can a true Indian not feel disappointed by this state of affairs? I hope my analysis is proved wrong.

Nazia Nazar, a columnist based in Pakistan, argues that India’s claim to being a democracy is overhyped and baseless. She gives numerous examples in defence of her belief that India’s 62 years of independence have been riddled with numerous atrocities against the religious minorities. She even goes to the extent of stating that Pakistan is in a much better position in the fight against extremism than India. I have rewritten her article for my peers.

We often decry the activities of the Muslim extremists which cause the loss of lives and of human dignity. The western media is quick to brand them with a plethora of titles. However, what name should we give to the Hindu fundamentalists of India who indulge in similar acts against the minorities? Shouldn’t they also be branded with the same names as the radicals of Islam?

India’s history since her independence from the British 62 years ago is littered with an increasing number of violent and revolting acts against its minorities. The Sikhs, the Christians and the Muslims have been systematically targeted in a genocidal program in which the state has more often than not been complicit.

India’s two major political parties are guilty of fanning the violence against the minorities in two radically different ways. The Congress party has been about loud talk and no action. It has never had a record of protecting the minorities, not even during the time when the Babri Masjid was brought down by Hindu militants even though various experts have consistently maintained that a Hindu temple probably never existed at the spot where the Masjid stood.

The record of the BJP with regard to the rights of the non-Hindus is far worse. It has proved to be an umbrella of protection for the forces of Hindutva who have been at the forefront of the atrocities against the Muslims and Christians. The events of 2002 are still fresh in mind when the Modi administration of Gujarat provided cover whilst the Muslim community was raped and plundered, and over 3000 innocent lives were lost.

The same BJP government has also been involved in the torching of houses and churches in the state of Orissa.

Top leaders in the BJP like Shri. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, L.K. Advani and Murli Manohar Joshi have been implicated in the Justice Liberhan Commission Report submitted on the demolition of the Babri Masjid.

India’s record with regard to tackling the menace of extremism is far worse than that of Pakistan. In Pakistan, the government is involved in an earnest campaign against extremism, whereas in India, the extremists sit in parliament.

I have rewritten the article for my superiors, although I must state at the outset that the original article’s language is of a very high standard, for which I have retained large chunks of it. Dionne Bunsha argues that the radicalisation of the Gujarati populace is not an emerging phenomenon and that it has been in motion for decades, if not for centuries. She explains the the Hindutva forces have been successful in uniting the various castes under one banner in revolt against the Muslim community. The rewritten article follows.

During the last two months of communal violence, questions have been raised with regard to the BJP’s ability to mobilize the various castes against the Muslims. The efforts of the far-right of the political spectrum in the carnage have been well-planned and systematic.

The fact is, the first recorded communal riot in Gujarat happened as far back as in the year 1714, during the Mughal rule, due to a minor incident- the accidental of ‘ghulal’ during the Holi festival. Several riots took place till 1817, under the rule of the Marathas. Riots broke out in 1941 during the British Raj, which caused the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement. It was at this time that the Muslims of Ahmedabad started supporting the Muslim League.

In 1946, violence occurred in the city again. In post-Independence India, there were riots in Ahmedabad in 1958, 1965 and 1969. The 1969 riots were also sparked by a minor event but led to one of the bloodiest riots in Gujarat.

Social activist Achyut Yagnik attributes the rise of Hindutva in the State to the rapid growth of an urban middle class that is in constant search of an identity.

. Tracing the rise of the BJP from the 1980s, he illustrates how it has managed to mobilise Patels, Banias, the OBCs and Dalits under a common Hindutva banner in a span of 20 years. Yagnik points out that the Congress split in 1969 changed caste equations in the State. When the Congress (I) swept to power in 1980 using the electoral combine of KHAM (Kshatriyas, Harijans, Adivasis and Muslims), the political clout of the upper castes and Patidars was eroded. "Between 1976 and 1980, the Congress(I) leadership in Gujarat virtually eliminated Brahmins, Banias and Patidars from core positions in the party. For the first time in history, not a single Patidar Minister was of Cabinet rank." (The last 10 years have seen a Patidar resurgence in State politics.)

The success of the Sangh Parivar rests on the fact that it has successfully united all Hindus, including the Scheduled Castes as one entity against the Muslim community. The strength of this movement is apparent from the electoral victories of the BJP government in the state’s elections despite a deteriorating human rights record.



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Emancipation Of The Slaves During The Civil War History Essay

Essays in this volume present an introduction to history of the emancipation of the slaves during the Civil War. The slaves are shown to have shaped the destiny of the nation through their determination to place their liberty on the wartime agenda. Essay examines the evolution of freedom in occupied areas of the lower and upper South. The struggle of those freed to obtain economic independence in difficult wartime circumstances indicates conflicting conceptions of freedom among former slaves and slaveholders, Northern soldiers and civilians. Essay demonstrates how the enlistment and military service of nearly 200,000 slaves hastened the transformation of the war into a struggle for universal liberty, and how this experience shaped the lives of former slaves long after the war had ended.

In the aftermath of the Civil War, the slaves were actually freed. and including President Lincoln, played in freeing the slaves.

The upshot is that it not only demystifies Emancipation, which in any case, was an "evolutionary process" rather than a single "discrete act," it also puts a lie to the accepted legend that American whites were so "freedom-loving" that they fought a war entirely to ensure the freedom of the slave. Despite the well-worn and accepted legend that it was "Lincoln who freed the slaves," the facts revealed in the first essay (as well as in the logic and reality of the social conditions surrounding the war revealed there) -- tell quite a different story. The gates of freedom were simply blown off their hinges and sprung open because no one was available to close them. They were simply left to inhale it on their own accord entirely as an exigent byproduct of the "fog" of the Civil war. And importantly, the fact that whites on neither side of the war could do much about it, does not in and of itself make them, de facto, champions of black freedom. Had they been able to do so, the gates of freedom would have surely been securely slammed shut again. Put simply, the barn gate of slavery had been blown open as a result of the chaos of the war, and the slaves had simply walked out and into the breeze of freedom -- such as it was at the time. Both the North and the South, emancipation was entirely forced upon whites in both regions by the exigencies and the chaos of the Civil War. Thus, the actual "freeing of the slaves" was not a single act as is often depicted in traditional American history.

It was not a heroic single act of white American magnanimity, or an enduring act on their part -- evidence of an ever-dying love for freedom. There is no evidence in the historical records to be found that supports the thesis that whites on neither side of the war, including Lincoln himself, ever had any definite plans of freeing the slaves as a single act of emancipation.

Quite the contrary was true in fact: Whites, whether north or south, were never actually enthusiastic about ending slavery even when they were "backed" into a corner and no longer had a choice in the matter. Nor were they ever openly supportive of it, even when it seemed clear that it would happen no matter what they felt or did about it. And most importantly, even the Abolitionists, who DID support freeing the slaves (for their own selfish moral and religious reasons), were not at the time supporters of making the freed slaves citizens of the US And on this very point, it should be mentioned that even in the North it is a little known fact that freedmen there were often denied US citizenship.

To wit, Lincoln did not even agree to allow blacks to fight in the Union Army until it was an absolute military necessity, and then did so only with the greatest of reluctance. But more importantly, and this is the most telling point of all, just as had been the same case during the Revolutionary War, slaves who fought for Lincoln's Union army (or for the Colonists Revolutionary army, or the army of the Confederacy for that matter) were not freed!

Blacks, who fought on the side of the Americans with General George Washington, were not freed and made citizens of the US as a result of their heroism in the war -- even while, at the same time, the British side was offering both freedom and British citizenship to the more than 100,000 slaves who fought on the British side. The best the "Americans" (the champions, as it were, of white only freedom) could muster was a promise of exile to their own black only colony somewhere else in the world, or a future unspecified timetable for their eventual freedom in the US Which, as subsequent history has shown, were both, in any case.

The truth is that in both the North and the South, emancipation was entirely forced upon whites by the exigencies of the Civil war. After the Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation by Lincoln, the slaves of America were free. This was a huge step in making our country truly free to all people. The construction of the South did not however work out smoothly for the freed slaves. After President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, former slaves took on a new role in American society. This role was one of more significance and self worth than in slavery, but this class of freedmen was anything but appreciated. Without the manpower of the slaves, the south's agricultural society would fail, and without the agriculture there would be little money or food in the south. The passing of the Louisiana Black Code in 1865, confirmed that whites felt as if blacks could not handle the responsibility or the rights of true citizens. Whites thought they did not deserve these rights because they were inferior to themselves and simply less than human. It was almost as if slavery had never ended.

Many blacks remained on farms and plantations because they did not know what else they could do after emancipation. However, many were being forced into staying because few knew anything other than farming. Some slaves however would do anything just to leave the farm. Even kind masters lost many slaves due to the want and need of freedom. Outsiders made independence nearly impossible though. The sharecropping system, in which most had worked before, was still the only employment available and certainly the only work blacks knew as familiar. Rural merchants tried to give blacks a chance for employment, but often forced them into a position where they would sharecrop.

Some positive effects on the black community following the war. Black family and social life began to improve. Family structure turned toward a more traditional model, with the man at the head of the household completing most of the manual labor. Many blacks soon wanted to be educated and literate. Many public schools, supervised by the Freedmen s Bureau, were built so ex-slaves and their children could be educated. Black churches also offered a place where blacks were given an environment in which they could participate. Funds were raised for schooling and Republican policies were supported in these churches. By 1865, black ministers assumed political roles and the first black conventions were held.

During the Seventeenth, Eighteenth and part of the Nineteenth Century the White people of North America used the Black people of Africa as slaves to benefit their interests. White people created a climate of superiority of their race over the Black African race that in some places, still lingers on today. The American Civil War however, was a key turning point for the Black African race. Through their actions and the political actions of President Lincoln and his administration. Whites felt that the Civil War was a war started upon the White Man's issues and what possible reason would the Black Man have for wanting to fight in this war. On the contrary The Black Man saw The Civil War as an opportunity to win freedom and gain respect. Blacks in the North who were free from slavery willingly pledged their service to fight in the Union Army however, their allegiance was denied by President Lincoln on political grounds. Lincoln realized that the issue of Black soldiers would be intolerable by the public and would not be accepted. Initially, the Union Army utilized Northern Blacks from the Free states to relieve Whites from daily tasks that were essential to maintain the armies, thus freeing up White soldiers for battle. As the Union Armies began to move further into Confederate territory however, they encountered many runaway slave Blacks. These Blacks were the ones that contributed most to the Union effort. This was true for two reasons. First, there were many more Blacks in the South compared to the North, roughly four million compared to two hundred thousand. Secondly, the Black people in the South had more at stake; once they left the Confederate side to join The Union there was no turning back. Not only would they be deemed as traitors but runaways as well and were likely to face death if they where caught.

The effects of this failure to provide a secure place in the American economic, social and political system for its "freed" slaves, still have deep ramification that are felt painfully even today.

As we can see, freedom for the blacks did not come directly as a result of the emancipation proclamation. And there were plenty of obstacles and people who tried to stop them. Freedom also meant the chance to reunite with lost family members. The end of slavery meant that African Americans could more closely fulfill what they saw as appropriate gender roles. However, slowly and surely the black community earned their right to be recognized.



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