Efforts Of German Purists Since 1600 History Essay

 

In order to describe how purists have affected the German language it is necessary to define purism. Pfalzgraf (2009)  states, “there is scarcely any intellectually satisfying definition to be found in the relevant literature.” (p.138). George Thomas (1991) however does give a summary of assorted existing definitions: “Purism is the manifestation of a desire on the part of a speech community...to preserve a language from, or rid it of, putative foreign elements or other elements held to be undesirable... Above all, purism is an aspect of the codification, cultivation and planning of standard languages.” (p.12). Linguistic purism in Germany came about in the 17th century and is still active in the present day. This essay will follow the efforts of German purists in chronological order, starting with the origins of various Sprachgesellschaften in the early 1600s, and finishing with purist movements still active nowadays, such as the Verein Deutsche Sprache. Pfalzgraf (2009) splits purism in the history of the German language into six phases: the baroque era; the Age of Enlightenment; from the French Revolution to the Carlsbad Decrees; the early 19th century; from 1871 to the Second World War; and from World War 2 until present day (pp. 143-158). The attitudes, actions and success of German purists differ greatly between these various phases, therefore it is very useful to assess purism in this way in order to fully understand the impact that different purists had on the German language.

The baroque era of purism in the history of the German language ranged from the early 17th century up until the early 18th century. At the beginning of this period German was seen as an unimportant language both academically and culturally, inferior to languages such as Latin, French and Italian. German scholars on the other hand believed the German language to be both “ancient and dignified” (Pfalzgraf 2009 p.143) and also regarded it as a protolanguage (Jones 1999). Pfalzgraf (2009) goes on to write that it was “thought to be important to cultivate the German language and keep it pure from foreign influences” in order “to fend off the cultural dominance of French and Latin” (p.143). This description of the context and historical background conveys the birth of German purism. The main idea of purity in this period was to make German a culturally central language by ridding it of foreign lexical influences, and also offensive or unclear words and expressions. This in turn lead to the appearance of the Sprachgesellschaften in Germany.

Perhaps the most important Sparachgesellschaft of the baroque era was the Fruchtbringende Gessellschaft which was created in 1617 by Ludwig von Anhalt-Köthen, and lasted up until the end of the century. The Bericht der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft Zweck und Vorhaben (1622) declares that an association should be established “in which one would speak and write in good pure German and otherwise, in the same group, would undertake to elevate our mother tongue (as nature obliges each of us to do) in a useful and constructive fashion.” (my translation). In other words, the society was created in order to promote the vernacular use of German. One of the major ways the Fruchtbringende Gessellschaft achieved this was through its designation of names and emblems with explanatory verses to all of its members. For example, Ludwig was named Der Nährende and his emblem was a loaf of bread; Justus Georg Schottelius, a very influential figure in purism at the time, was called Der Suchende. Pfalzgraf (2009) suggests that many of the emblems given to members relate to the Italian Accademia della Crusca (founded in 1582). He writes, “The metaphor of separating the grain from the chaff expresses the idea that there are both desirable and undesirable words, phrases, grammatical constructions, etc., in every language, the former being worth taken care of, whereas the latter should be abolished.” (p.144). This analysis of the metaphor sums up what the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft was trying to achieve. David Wellbery (A new history of German literature 2004) suggests that new discussions were created in the choosing of these emblems and verses, and that “In the very act of admitting its members, the Fruit-Bearing Society fulfilled the purpose for which it had been founded: to foster conversation and literature in the German language.” (p.279).

The Age of Enlightenment in general promoted a different attitude towards German purism. Pfalzgraf (2009) writes that the key aim of the period “was to establish German as a language of science to replace the widely-used Latin language.” (p.146). However amongst the most important purists of the age there were big contrasts in attitudes and approaches towards the standardization of the German language. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was very much in favour of the scientific promotion of German in favour of Latin. He saw the German language as under threat because scholars favoured Latin and even French over German. He also agreed with the baroque view that obscenities and colloquialisms should not be used. However Leibniz was not totally against the use of foreign words in German. Pfalzgraf (2009) states that Leibniz agreed with the use of foreign words in academic and government writings, but believed that regular everyday German should contain no foreign influences at all. Therefore Leibniz did share some of the same attitudes to other purists regarding foreign influences, however he did not agree with the total abolishment of them. At the other end of the spectrum there was Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, who Pfalzgraf describes as “the most extreme language protector of the Enlightenment.” (2009 p.148). Klopstock’s attitudes follow on from those brought about in the baroque era. In his book Zur Sprachreinigung im Deutschen 1789-1871 (1975) Alan Kirkness writes that Klopstock pursued “the patriotic pride in the mother tongue” (p.54 my translation). Evidence of Klopstock’s patriotism can be seen in the Memoirs of Frederick and Margaret Klopstock (1808). Early in his life Klopstock decided to write the first epic poem in German in order to “raise the fame of German literature in this particular to a level with that of other European countries” because the French “had denied to the Germans any talent for poetry” (p.5).

In his essay, Das Phänomen des Purismus in der Geschichte des Deutschen (1998), Kirkness states that there were four different approaches towards purism in the period 1789 to 1819. These were the educative-enlightening approach, the language structural approach, the radically-rational approach, and the political-nationalistic approach (p.411). An important purist of this period to mention is Joachim Heinrich Campe who followed the educative-enlightenment approach towards purism. He was not nationalistically influenced, but wanted to create a language which every German could use, even the uneducated. His intentions were to create a transparent language with no unclear foreign words. Pfalzgraf (2009) writes that Campe “was of the opinion that only a pure German language, comprehensible to every citizen, would lead to the general enlightenment of the German people.” (p.149) In his attempts to achieve this Campe created his Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache (1807-11), of which he accumulated five volumes. On top of that he created the Wörterbuch zur Erklärung und Verdeutschung der unserer Sprache aufgedrungenen fremden Ausdrücke (1813). In his dictionaries Campe is said to have produced around 3,500 neologisms, however only about 350 of them are still used today. Pfalzgraf suggests that Campe was perhaps not very successful due to his limited knowledge of linguistics and his superficial methods (p.150). He even tried to change the styles of contemporary writers in order to better distribute his ideas, which lead to heavy criticism from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Overall Campe was not very successful in his attempts to break the foreign lexical barrier between the uneducated and educated classes.

The early nineteenth century was also a relatively unsuccessful period for purists in Germany. This phase was characterised by nationalistically motivated purists, quite the opposite approach from that of Joachim Campe. A further difference was in who was actively campaigning for purism. Academics began to condemn the use of foreign words, in contrast to earlier times when they had accepted foreign influences in German. They believed that to create a German national unity and emancipation it was necessary to have an “unadulterated standard German” (Pfalzgraf 2009 p. 152). Many Sprachschutzvereine and journals were founded in this period. These included the failed Verein der Deutschen Reinsprache,Die Eiche and the Freies Deutsches Hochstift (which still exists today). The former two were both created by Karl Brugger, an eager patriot and nationalist. However in both, “practically nothing was achieved” (Pfalzgraf 2009 p.153). The reasons for his failures can be compared to those of Campe in the earlier phase. Brugger was not actually a qualified linguist and had poor knowledge of linguistic constructions. These two eras involved many purists, however it seems their passion outweighed their actual knowledge of the subject, leading to little impact upon the German language.

In contrast to the ineffective efforts of German purists from earlier times, the period 1871 up to the Second World War saw much success in German. A major reason for this was the abolishment of foreign words in areas of official work. Hundreds of German words replaced French ones in industry, travel, the army and the post office. For example the French word for a ‘return-ticket’, Retourbillet, was replaced with the German Rückfahrkarte. Therefore there was official support for the protection of the German language in certain public sectors.

This period also saw the creation of successful Sprachschutzvereine – organisations which had previously failed and made no impact upon the language. The most important of these was the Allgemeiner Deutscher Sprachverein (ADSV) which was founded by Hermann Riegel in 1885. This society had three key objectives. Firstly was to purify the German language through the abolishment of foreign influences. Secondly was to repair and protect the quintessential spirit and nature of the German language. Lastly the ADSV wanted to invigorate the patriotism of the German people. Perhaps this last aim can be seen as the most important, for the ADSV were more concerned with a sense of national identity rather than with the German language itself, as can be seen in the organisations motto, “Gedenke auch, wenn du die deutsche Sprache sprichst, daß du ein Deutscher bist!”  The ADVS managed to create a passion for the German language amongst ordinary Germans, causing them to join the fight against foreign influences. However after its initial success the ADSV struggled with the rise of the Nazis, who opposed the aims and activities of the foundation. Joseph Goebbels in particular was against the work of the ADSV, which came to an end around 1940.

After the end of the ADSV there was no real purist activity in Germany for many decades. However since the 1990s the battle against foreign influences has sparked up again. Where in earlier times purists were mainly concerned with the use of French words, recently the ridding of English words in the German language and anti-Americanism have become the focal points of German purism. Many refer to anglicisms as ‘Denglisch’. The Verein Deutsche Sprache is another Sprachverein which was founded in 1997. According to its website it now has over 32,000 members across countries all over the world, a third of which are friends of the German language from Asia and Africa.  The aims of the association are also stated on the website. They want to combat the anglicization of the German language; remind Germans of the value and beauty of the German language; and they do not want to lose the ability to define new things with new words. The second aim mentioned is similar to the attitudes of the former ADSV. Once again the society is promoting a sense of German pride, as well as focussing on the language itself.

In their main campaign against ‘Denglisch’ the VDS target companies and institutions which are not using the German language as it should be. For example they write protest letters to organisations which they have labelled as Sprachhunzer des Monats. On top of that they select a Sprachpanscher des Jahres (language adulterator of the year) and have also had a Tag der deutschen Sprache every year since 2001 on 30th September. Yet again however it is possible to claim that this society puts passion for the German language ahead of actual linguistic knowledge. Although the academic advisory board of the VDS is made up mostly of university professors, almost none of them are experts in the field of linguistics.

To summarise, since 1600 there have been many purist individuals and organisations in Germany which have attempted to cleanse the German language of foreign influences and restore a sense of national pride in the German people. The various attempts over the centuries have had varying degrees of success, but overall it must be argued that German purists have had little impact upon the German language since 1600. Too many of the individuals and societies have lacked the linguistic knowledge needed in order to make a difference and persuade people that the German language is in fact in danger. There have of course been successes along the way, for example in the campaigns of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft, the institutionalisation of linguistic purism after 1871, and, to an extent, the early years of the ADSV. Many German words have been created over the years which have successfully replaced French, Latin and English words. However the amount of success does not accurately reflect the effort put in by German purists since the 17th century. An example of this is the mere ten percent of Joachim Campe’s suggestions which were accepted into the German language. Although all of the purists have been extremely eager and passionate in their activities, the lack of actual linguistic knowledge and understanding of how language functions in a speech community has to be seen as a major reason for why they have had little impact upon the German language. Many efforts have been made since 1600, but relatively little has been achieved.

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Uk Tax System Most Perfect Tax System Devised Economics Essay

John S. Caldwell said "The point to remember is what government gives it must first take away1." Taxes transfer spending power from the taxpayer to the government. Taxation exceeds the totals that can be increased by resorting to the printing press, charging consumers directly, or borrowing. The government gathers money to give on public services, such as education, health and the social security system by tax.

The main UK taxes are presented and categorized and the principal sources of tax law are explained. It is consisted of a number of different taxes, some of which are direct taxes and other is indirect taxes. The fundamental rules of sources of tax law are laid down in Acts of Parliament. In modern Britain taxation has become completely embedded in the society. Without taxation the country would cease to operate.

Over the years the UK taxation system has become extremely complicated. This has developed a system which is strangled by red tape and can be very confusing for both personal taxation and business taxation.

The coalition government has planned a number of very good received ideas with regards to the UK taxation system although as yet no final decisions have been made. Any move to intelligible the current taxation system should help with investment, both internally and externally, in the UK to hopefully create a good situation for all involved.

UK tax law must accede with the regulations and directives of the European Union. EU member’s states must provide members of other EU states freedom of establishment and not tax them at higher rates than their own nationals. In additionally, UK tax law must be agreeable with the European Convention on Human Rights and the Human Rights Act 1998.

The UK government repair the UK taxation system in a move which will be welcomed by the British residents and businesses. As a whole, the UK has a low-tax, low-allowance system of taxation. For this reason, it estimated the most perfect tax system that could be conceived. Besides, I will analyze this perception with the following basic information.

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The income tax system of the United Kingdom has cultivated over many years during which it has been clarified and outlined by amending legislation and by case law. If you live in the UK, you will have to pay income tax for your wages, if you are employed, the profits from your business if you're self-employed, jobseeker’s allowance, retirement pensions, income from property, building and bank society interest and dividends on shares. Likewise, there are some exceptions for individuals like ambassadors and their foreign staff, members of visiting armed forces and officials of the United Nations.

This tax is collected by the government department known as HM Revenue & Customs. The personal income tax is lower in UK than many countries. It is based on individual rather than family income and only about 10% of taxpayers have been needed to file returns in recent years. The UK income tax highlights simplicity, downplays the main role of public policy and limits attempts to achieve finely tuned measures of income. When working in the UK, you can usually select between a numbers of different ways to receive your pay. Under the UK PAYE (pay-as-you-earn) taxation scheme, tax will be abstracted from your pay by your employer before you receive it. Your PAYE UK deductions will be a combination of your income tax and National Insurance (NI) contributions.

National Insurance is a necessary deduction of a fixed percentage of your earnings that admits you to have admission to benefits and services such as the National Health Service (NHS).As an employer you pay National Insurance contributions (NICs) on the earnings you supply to your employees. Earnings consist of not only cash amounts but advantages, such as providing your employees with company cars. Employed and self-employed pay NICs on their earnings too. Some contributions go towards building up workers’ entitlements to public security benefits such as Jobseeker’s Allowance and the State Pension.

In European legislation, value added tax (VAT) is now firmly demonstrated as one of the most important forms of taxation in Britain. The target of this is to compose an accepted system of taxation that does not impede intra European Union business transaction. Britain's legislation applies a "taxable person" is an individual, partnership or company who is, or is needed to be, registered for VAT. The UK VAT legislation includes all forms of business supply made in return for consideration.

VAT has an important and often definite force on the economics of property development and construction. Not all purchases have VAT applied, for instance children's clothes and shoes are usually exempt from VAT as is most food which we purchase from a store. The VAT decline helps the community save money as retailers and providers have decrease their prices. Although, there is an excise tax which HMRC charges on some goods that are acquired, imported or produced in the UK. It is charged on alcohol, hydrocarbon oils (including fuel and petrol), cigarettes and tobacco. Increasing prices and grander taxes leads to a sharp rise in total communication tax revenue. Except of this, is this really an advantage especially as most of our day to day living purchases are actually food on which VAT is not always applied? To the best of my knowledge, i strongly believe that the increase tax on the cigarettes motivate people to quit smoking for the best of their health. Alternatively, merchants afraid of the cost increase because it will push more smokers onto the black market in tobacco products, which are purchased them at half the retail price. Also, the increased prices on alcohol stimulate people not get drunk so decreases the crimes in UK. On the other hand, this situation had closed many pubs. About the petrol, it is obvious that the other transportation is cheaper. You should not have to pay for petrol, parking’s etc. In addition to this, I could say that the escalator on the vat price for petrol was designed to raise money and discourage car use on environmental grounds.

Capital gains tax has two basic problems. Firstly, it is about capital gains which arise only when the price level increased. However, there are other considerations which are discussed and there is also the practical problem of selecting an appropriate index amount to take account of inflation.

The other problem is that capital gains tax should be imposed on an accrual basis. In real, this would include the valuation of capital assets every year, so deducting a considerable administrative burden. In addition, it would include the risk that individuals might be forced to liquidate assets in order to pay the tax.

In United Kingdom, capital gains tax prevents these problems because it is levied on a realisation basis. But this creates some difficulties. To start with, asset-holders may be "locked-in", in the sense that they have an inducement to defer payment of the tax by not realising the asset. Next, it is difficult to make the tax growing because assets are realised in changeable lumps. That's why need complex averaging provisions. This difficult is aggravated because an individual's capital gains, whether realised or not, happen irregularly.

There is no intention in the UK tax system to subject a receipt to both income tax and capital gains tax. If a receipt is subject to income tax the no capital gains tax liability will arise. This is a common rule that exist in Britain. A liability to capital gains tax arises when a chargeable person makes a chargeable disposal of chargeable assets. Capital gains are arranged for inflation, while deductions for mortgage interest and other items are more limited than other countries.

On the other hand, nothing in life is black and white. George Osborne said Britain had "one of the most complex and opaque tax codes in the world". Some people believe that the UK tax law needed to be simplified, to cut the burden on business and attract foreign investment. People might actually understand the tax laws which they were being asked to comply with. The tax system evolved into a "hindrance" to business under Labour, and that by simplifying it and making it more competitive for small companies it would motivate economic growth.

The common political parties are right to suggest policies to maximise revenue as part of their schemes to ease the deficit. On the other hand, their plans place too much emphasis on tax increases rather than spending declines. Certainly, their schemes would cause the highest economic injury by increasing taxes on employment and income rather than consumption, and by maximizing the burden on a small class of wealth generators rather than widening the total of taxpayers. The contemporary plans will prevent investment, employment and growth.

Alternatively, it is important to remind the electorate that expenses have to be paid for. UK political parties have given the conception that ever raising welfare advantages and social services can be made accessible to them at little or no cost. The effect is unsustainable positions of social costs.

Each of the major parties has proposed tax policy changes. Basing tax policy on principles will itself go a long way to restore businesses and investors. A new set of standards for UK tax policy will affect to raising the tax base rather than damaging raises in tax rates, income from dissimilar sources should be taxed in an similar method and tax should be connected to the individual, the tax system and tax policy method should be available from political whim and regular with principle and taxes must be required in an even handed way and individuals should offer their equal share, in all parts of the income scale.

In conclusion, it is obvious that the UK tax system is in good way and day by day evolves for the best. The Paymaster General, Dawn Primarolo, said:

“The measures announced today will ensure that the UK has a fair and competitive tax system that recognises the challenges of today’s business environment. They will advance the Government’s vision of a modern and efficient tax system that supports commercial decisions and promotes economic efficiency and productivity while keeping pace with European and international developments.”

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Winners And Losers Of Globalisation Processes Economics Essay

There are both winners and losers associated with globalisation, however what exactly is globalisation and how can it be defined? Daniels et al. Defines the term globalisation in the following way: ‘A contested term relating to the transformation of spatial relations that involves a change in the relationship between space, economy and society’.(Page 13 text book) There are a few key dimensions connected to globalisation, these are economical, political, social, cultural and environmental. I argue that there are some positives linked to globalisation, however many are still worse off and suffer as a result of this phenomenon. Some general winners as a result of globalisation are the highly skilled and educated, large firms, global markets, men, or any people with assets. The losers of globalisation are the workers, women and children, local communities, the uneducated, people without skills and small firms. For globalisation to work there needs to be a decrease in inequality so that the gap between predominantly the rich and poor countries become closer together.

Transnational and multinational corporations are corporations which have headquarters in a certain country (mainly in a global city) and operate in several other countries around the world. They have been the central players in the evolution of globalisation since the Second World War. These have continued to become some of the most powerful economic and political entities in the world today. The corporations can influence globalisation greatly and bring wealth to developed countries. Many of the larger Transnational Corporations (TNCs) have a higher turnover than the majority of the world’s countries. For example, the combined revenues of just General Motors and Ford, the two largest automobile corporations in the world, exceed the combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for all of sub-Saharan Africa.  

Economic globalisation refers to increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross border movement of goods, service, technology and capital.  Capitalism drives globalisation in this present era and will continue to do so with the markets opening up and becoming neo-liberal. Whilst economic globalisation has been occurring over several thousands of years, it has just recently expanded rapidly with the increasing improvements in technology, transportation and free trade. This recent growth has occurred in the main from developed countries integrating with less developed countries, by means of foreign direct investment (FDI), the reduction of trade barriers and the modernisation of these developing cultures. Countries involved in trade liberalisation benefit from an increase in living standards, increased incomes, and higher rates of economic growth. For economies to grow, TNCs need to generate profit and expand globally. They achieve this by moving shop to less developed countries in order to decrease production costs and increase profit. The winners of this process are the major corporations (Nike, Gap, Tommy Hilfiger, etc.) whose products are made at a minimal cost, thus generating increased amounts of profit allowing them to globalise their business and become wealthier.

There have been many criticisms against TNCs however they have invested into developing countries and via doing this, have actually raised the living standards. Even though the western world sees sweetshops as being unethical, the labourers who work in them are often benefiting greatly. Many economists whose studies are directly related to sweatshops find that after controlling for other factors, multinational firms pay higher wages than domestic firms in Third World countries.  Many citizens in developing countries are unqualified or uneducated this makes it extremely difficult for them to find employment by being unqualified. Feenstra and Hanson (1997) find that multinational firms improve the lives of workers by increasing the demand for labour. This indicates that unqualified citizens still have a chance of employment and receiving an above average income. The apparel industry has drawn most attention in the press for its use of sweatshop labour. Evidently, the apparel wages are low by western country standards however, these wages compare favourably with the average standard of living within these countries. For example, in Honduras, the site of the famous Kathy Lee Gifford sweatshop scandal, the average apparel worker earns, $13.10 per day, yet 44% of the country’s population lives on less than $2 per day.  Evidently, sweatshops do play a major role in developing countries, however there still are some negatives surrounding them.

The negative associated with globalisation cannot be overlooked. The losers of this process are the workers who work increased hours; earn little income, along with poor living and working standards. Even though sweatshops produce a reasonable, above average income for its workers, they usually work in dirty polluted factories which may have a negative effect on the worker and may decrease their life span. For example, Tommy Hilfiger a world renowned brand has set up sweatshops in developing countries, where products are made at a minimal cost and sold in developed countries at a high cost, producing major profits which return to the specific TNC headquarters, thus the developing countries economy does not benefit greatly. This in turn leads to an increase in inequality between the rich and the poor. As a result of sweatshops, citizens in the developing world may suffer as well. When these major corporations move shop to reduce costs they leave several thousands of local citizens unemployed, which may lead to them relying on the doll or welfare. They may also substitute humans with labour saving technologies which will also increase unemployment levels. This can continue to lead to issues such as a loss of tax revenue which may be detrimental to the home country and halt them from moving forward. An additional loser in this process can be the consumer who purchases these products which can be described as being ‘highly overpriced’.

Another significant and often overlooked loser from economic globalisation is the environment. Major corporations’ decreases in environmental integrity as polluting corporations take advantage of weak regulatory rules in developing countries. For example, human systems are depleting resources and degrading the environment at unprecedented rates, such as mining companies clearing land for production causing deforestation and pollution. There are many more examples of environmental degradation such as urbanization of productive land; water logging and salinization of soil; soil erosion; deforestation; ground water depletion; ozone depletion; pollution; and climate change to name a few. These are all issues which are currently being seen through media sources. Such as the BP oil spill which has been graded the biggest environmental disaster in the US history, “The oil rig, about 40 miles (64km) off the coast of Louisiana, sank two days later, gushing an estimated 12,000 to 19,000 barrels of crude oil a day into the Gulf of Mexico.”  This appears to be a prime example of environmental degradation. This disaster continues to have multiple effects on the environment and economy such as killing wildlife and habitat, and effecting tourism on this part of the coast. Ms Wickman, owner of the Treasure Trove gift shop that occupies an 18th century church, one of Alabama's oldest buildings, estimates that her business has dropped by half since news of the April 20 explosion that destroyed an oil rig under contract with BP.  Due to the interconnectedness of globalisation when this disaster occurred all the oil prices around the world fluctuated and were unstable at the time.

Some countries may suffer from the ‘resource curse’. A prime example of the resource curse is Nigeria which is a rich country with desperately poor people. Despite its massive earning from oil, 70% of its estimated 140 million people live below the poverty line.  About 95 percent of Nigeria's revenue is generated by oil and gas, resulting in billions of dollars in state funds every year, though much of the country remains impoverished and underdeveloped this is mainly due to a high level of corruption in its government.  These can lead to much greater issues within developing countries such as an increase in the chances of civil war within developing countries and open war between developing countries as they fight for resources.

In conclusion, there are evidently positive impacts which have occurred as a part of the globalisation phenomenon. It has contributed to increased job opportunities for uneducated or unqualified citizens, has increased economic growth for developed countries through transnational and multinational corporations, and increased living standards due to trade liberalisation. Even though there are some negatives associated with globalisation such as increasing the gap between the rich and poor, exploiting labourers, along with having environmental impacts, globalisation has still continued to have many great benefits on the world. It is unreasonable to predict that globalisation will encourage equality around the world; there will always be winners and losers, regardless.

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Haiti The First Republican Country In Latin America History Essay

History » Haiti The First Republican Country In Latin America History Essay

Haiti is the first republican country in Latin America. It gained its independence in 1804 and it has the world’s first black led government. Though Haiti has a rich historical background, it is counted as one of the least developed countries in the world and it is heavily obliged to the World Bank.

Haitian geography is very diverse. From mountain ranges to coastal plains, all exist in harmony in this Caribbean island. Many selection of flora and fauna are originated there. But due to the rushed trend of modern urbanization many species have perished.

Haiti is situated near the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts towards east by about 20mm per year in relation to the North American plate. This places Haiti in a very risky position, as it means that Haiti is very vulnerable to quakes, cyclones and other dire weather conditions due to the tectonic plate movements.

The worst quake to hit Haiti in about 200 hundred years was on January 12th 2010. It was of magnitude 7.0 followed by 12 aftershocks, each of magnitude greater than 5.0. It caused about 230,000 deaths, 300,000 injuries and about another 1,000,000 left homeless.

Communication methods, air, land, and sea transport facilities, hospitals, and electrical networks had been destroyed by the quake, which hampered rescue and aid efforts.

Many of the world’s countries pitched in to help Haiti back to its feet. A telethon was held and it raised about US$58 million.

With the increasing frequency of earthquakes, tsunamis and other natural disasters, Haiti was yet another unfortunate bearer of tragedy when an earthquake shook the very souls of the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere. Fortunately, support from all the ends of the Earth has come to surpass this unavoidable and unimaginable event. This report intends to give an overview of Haiti, the earthquake and the aftermath.

Haiti was the first independent country in Latin America. It is the second largest island in the Greater Antilles and is situated in the western part of Hispaniola.  Haiti gained its independence after a slave rebellion in 1804 and it is the first black led republican country in the world.  Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, and is ranked 149th of 182 countries on the Human Development Index.  About 225,000 Haitian children are working as unpaid household help, which is considered as a form of modern slavery.  It was considered and the qualified as one of the countries which are heavily in debated to the IMF and the World Bank.  

Haiti has a very diverse topography and consists mainly of mountain areas.  As a result of its varied environment, there are very special native flora and fauna which are not found elsewhere. Along with the mountainous terrains are also many small coastal and valleys.  Haiti used to be a very tropically lush and forest covered country until urbanization took over.  As humans began cutting forests to make homes, many rare species of flora and fauna were endangered and farmlands destroyed. Forests were also lost as a result of erosion which was caused due to logging, which is done to get charcoal, the most important source of fuel to the country.  

The Island of Hispaniola, shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic, is seismically active and has a history of destructive earthquakes.  Haiti is located near the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about 20mm per year in relation to the North American plate.  The strike-slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the Septentrional-Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault in the south; both its location and focal mechanism suggest that the January 2010 quake was caused by a rupture of the Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault, which had been locked for 250 years, gathering stress.  A magnitude 8.0 earthquake struck the Dominican Republic and shook Haiti on 4 August 1946, producing a tsunami that killed 1,790 people and injured many others.  The Australian government's travel advisory site had previously expressed concerns that Haitian emergency services would be unable to cope in the event of a major disaster, and the country is considered "economically vulnerable" by the Food and Agriculture Organization. It is no stranger to natural disasters; in addition to earthquakes, it has been struck frequently by cyclones, which have caused flooding and widespread damage.  

January 12th 2010, the 6th worst earthquake recorded in history with a magnitude of 7.0, hit less than ten miles from the capital of Port-au-Prince, Haiti. The preliminary earthquake was followed by twelve aftershocks greater than magnitude 5.0.  The Haitian Government reported that between 217,000 and 230,000 people had been recovered as dead, approximately 300,000 injured, and over 1,000,000 left homeless. They also projected that 250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were brutally damaged,  from shantytown homes to national landmarks,  including the Presidential Palace, the National Assembly building and the Port-au-Prince Cathedral.  Amongst those perished were Archbishop of Port-au-Prince Joseph Serge Miot and opposition leader Micha Gaillard. The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), situated in the capital also collapsed killing the Mission's Chief, Hédi Annabi.  

Numerous countries took action to appeals for humanitarian aid, transferring funds and sending rescue and medical teams, engineers and support personnel. Communication systems, air, sea, and land transport services, hospitals, and electrical networks had been damaged by the quake, which hindered rescue and aid work; uncertainty over who was in charge, air traffic overcrowding, and issues with prioritization of flights additionally complicated early relief efforts.  Port-au-Prince's morgues were rapidly inundated; tens of thousands of bodies were buried in mass graves.  As rescues slowed down, supplies, medical care and sanitation became the main concern. Holdups in aid circulation led to angry demands from aid workers and survivors, and various pillaging and periodic violence were observed.  

Amid the extensive destruction and damage all over Port-au-Prince and elsewhere, essential infrastructure required to respond to the disaster was severely destroyed or damaged. There was substantial damage to communications infrastructure.  The public telephone system was not accessible, and two of Haiti's leading cellular phone providers, Digicel and Comcel Haiti both complained that their services had been affected by the quake. According to Reporters Sans Frontières (RSF), the majority of the radio stations went off the air and merely 20 of the 50 stations in Port-au-Prince were back on air a week following the quake.  

In the evenings following the quake, countless people slept in the streets, on pavements, in cars, or in temporary shanty towns either because their homes had been ruined, or they feared remaining structures would not endure aftershocks.  Building standards are low in Haiti and the country has no building codes. Engineers have affirmed that it is doubtful many buildings would have stood through any sort of disaster.  Structures are regularly raised anywhere they can fit; a number of buildings were constructed on hills with inadequate foundations or steel works. A spokesperson for Catholic Relief Services has projected that about two million Haitians lived as squatters on territory they did not own.  The nation also suffered from deficiencies of fuel and potable water even prior to the quake.  

On January 22nd, a charity telethon called Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief was held and was the most broadly circulated telethon in history.  Plans for the telethon were advertised by MTV Networks three days after the 2010 Haiti quake hit.  Money raised by the telethon and from the sales of its video and album, which were immediately accessible on iTunes, were spread to seven charities doing aid work in Haiti. By January 23rd, the telethon had raised over US$58 million.  

Assisting refugee immigration into Canada was discussed by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, and in the United States, Haitian refugees were given Temporary Protected Status which allows approximately 100,000 illegal immigrant Haitians in the country to live legally for 18 months. President Barack Obama declared that former presidents Bill Clinton who is also the UN special envoy to Haiti, and George W. Bush would help raise money for Haiti's restoration. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Haiti on January 16th to inspect the damage and confirmed that US$48 million had been raised by now in the United States to help Haiti recuperate.  After the conference with Secretary Clinton, President Préval said that the highest precedence in Haiti's revival were founding a functioning government, clearing roads, and clearing the streets of corpses to ensure sanitary conditions.  

Although the recent natural disaster was a tragic punishment to an already impoverished nation, the subsequent worldwide support in rebuilding Haiti could be viewed as a blessing in disguise. While Haiti was the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere, with all the new investments and attention, it could very well become one of the hot-spots for international travel and tourism. The worldwide efforts made for these wonderful people will no doubt improve more aspects of everyone’s lives, though indirectly. Fortunately, Haiti was not overtaken by war and intentional killing for anyone’s gain. This makes for a peaceful reconciliation with their future. Haiti will soon be the physical paradise to match its people’s kindness.

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When How Policy Makers Rely In Private Market Economics Essay

Markets are foundations that allow substitute of commodities to take place between buyers and sellers. They play a central role in allocating resources and allocate income in most up to date economy. And government plays also an important role in it.

Although government intervention can often improve on market conclusion, it does not always do so.

1st step is that government is well known as private negotiator, in relation to different factors that influence optimal economic choice.

2nd step is that civil servants and politicians must have their own point of view either financial or non financial related with job safety or other purposes in short designing polices that reduce economic in efficiencies.

3rd step, government intervention often implies significant administrative costs and inefficiencies caused by weak or distorted incentives and lack of proper monitoring.

4th step government intervention generates chances for various special interest groups which involve devastate of resources to bend policy outcomes.

Government involvement in market has many forms like in shape of:

taxes,

subsides ,

obligation of values,

rivalry rule,

guidelines

and franchise

The merit and demerit of privatization have been argued by policy maker many times from many years, and most of the time results are in favor of merits. In the provision of social services, a part that has a tradition of broad government participation, there is an association toward privatization. For example, as part of U.S. welfare reform state are giving contracts to for-profit firms to run job training and placement programs; a number of states are contracting out the management of prisons to private companies; some advocates have called for increasing privatization of elementary and secondary education through a school voucher program; and the U.S. debate over Social Security reform includes a variety of proposals to “privatize” Social Security, just as Great Britain’s public pension system has allowed individuals to manage their own funds since 1987. Rebecca M Black in her paper focuses on the social service sector tells about different aspects of government intervention in private markets.

Competition. Competition is at effort in mutually government and private markets, but the competition in markets is more civil and unbiased.

Venture development. Program receiver and bureaucratic contractor work in cooperation with chosen politicians to increase government programs. Basically if a government program is good quality and long-drawn-out program then it would be even enhanced.

Venture narrowing or removal. Business venture when failed continuously it must be changed or die while “government program elimination” is almost an eliminated. The life of any business venture is always uncertain either profit and loss.

Progress of achievement. Very fewer industries are conquered by one or two firms, but many members compete instead, success is deliberate by tiny gains in profits and market shares, and there can be numerous winners.

Product diversity. Product differentiation is persistent as big business attempt to appeal to fresh consumers. Different businesses struggle to provide to diverse market segments, resultant in wide consumer choice. Government provision of a product is liable toward one size fits all.

Resource of assessment and accountability. Accountability of market is bottom up from consumers and accountability of government is top-down” based on the diplomacy of political system.

Consumer understanding. Individuals have a tendency about their market option than about their government option or equally candidates and policy issues. The cause is that a customer gets to create decisions for him.

Pressure of the unawareness. Logically uninformed citizens are frequently decisive in politics. For example, a computer producer supplier to computer geeks and buying executives at Wal-Mart relatively than attempting to take benefit of the poorly knowledgeable. Computer buyer knows very little about GB gain from the leading role of well-informed buyers.

Time scope for selection. Management of business likely toward fair consideration of short-term and long-term impact. Yet if a business vendor anticipates selling out shortly, the owner wishes the venture have healthy long-term prospects so as to obtain a high selling price. For government it’s difficult.

Cost control. Basically government is unable to control costs while for the private sector, the profit reason means that managers are constantly in tune to keep away from pointless expenses and to controlling expenditure of manufacture.

The effects of privatization and deregulation pains in other zone of the economy have direct persons to appear for further region where such reorganization may be useful. A public discussion concerning little quality in some publicly-provided services (such as public education or welfare services) has led some to believe privately offer services as a probable option.

In reality, there is a broad variation in the level and kind of public versus private participation in different social service region. It point out the level of government rights in a small number of social service areas, and compares this with the share of revenues in these areas that come from the government. Government possession is quite widespread in U.S. elementary and secondary education, wherever 89 % of students go to publicly hold and operated schools, but is much less pervasive in the health care sector, where only 17 % of hospital beds are in visibly owned and operated hospitals, or in the child care zone.

Government can be considerably involved in these areas in ways not linked to ownership

and management, as indicated by the deviation among financial connection and ownership. The public sector is heavily concerned in the financing of health care than in the tenure of hospitals, providing 62% of all hospital revenues, much of it through publicly operated health care programs. In contrast, the public sector is less involved in the financing of higher education, providing only 38 percent of the revenues, though 78 percent of students go to publicly operated universities or colleges.

It raises the following question: the government heavily involved in some areas and not others For instance, a recent review of privatization by “Shleifer (1998) concludes there are few arguments for extensive government ownership and management, even in areas such as education where this has long been the predominant institutional arrangement”.

“In contrast, Starr (1989) argues that government ownership and management is a good thing in core social service areas, and is wary about privatization schemes.”

One of the uniqueness of the social service sector is the occurrence of different type of market failure. In fact, one way to define “social services” is to describe them by the subsequent market aspects.

Social services main purpose is to create benefit but in less cost which gave high advantages to individuals. Private markets are takes those cost and benefit advantages by providing better services to public. e.g., ineffective prisons take great effect on criminal when they free from prisons and whole society may be affected by their bad behaviors. efficient basic education may benefit the whole society by more literate and numerate future workers, raising productivity and improving citizen understanding in a democratic society.

Most of social services are complex with multi-faceted inputs and outputs. Some services may be only infrequently purchased, such as many health procedures, which limits the information consumers have about them. All of these issues limit the ability of the person to fully recognize its value.

In many social service areas the recipient of the service may have a limited capability for choice and is often not the actual decision-maker. For instance, young children are not able to make serious decisions; very ill or incapacitated persons may be in the same condition.

Divisional issues are frequently a basic cause why private market outcomes are considered insufficient in the social service area, mostly if a few people have limited incomes and are thus expelled from certain markets. At one level, this may involve a apprehension about access.

The model operates in many sectors of the economy in which there are troubles of market breakdown that can be readily corrected by government regulation. For instance, the externalities related to release of dirty water or smoke is corrected through various regulatory schemes.

It’s “coupon” model, government supply some relocation of income among probable beneficiary, but the beneficiary themselves contract for services in the private market.

In this privatized prison and privatized job training programs operate; an important factor in this approach is either government can write complete contracts with the private sector, to reassure that the preferred quality of service is supply.

In this type government composes all operating choice and government workers give the service. Conventionally, prisons, schools, and welfare services have been granted in this way.

Basically if output quality is noticeable, but there are agency and distributional problems as well as externalities, then privatization via out from contract can be feasible. In this case , the government, because it actually owns the service, can inscribe general contracts for a private manager that reassure quality principles are met, access and fairness issues are described.. An example of this may be job training programs, where both the inputs and the results are reasonably measurable. Of course, there are a number of situations meeting these criteria where the government has traditionally owned and operated services rather than contracting out. These are areas where privatization might be considered.

Health and education are two biggest items in any country we take example of US .The public sector straight give the bulk of educational services, during the public school bureaucracy, while the majority public maintain for health care is guide from a scheme of tax-supported government expenses for services give by private provider. The distinction among public policies in these markets enhances a host of questions about the scope of government in a diverse economy, and the structure of policies for market intervention. It then considers the "choice of tool dilemma, the choice between intervention via charge subsidies, directive, and straight public provision of services in markets.

The inability of government to provide higher quality or more equitable services may be due to poor public management. But it may also be due to corrosion in the things that have conventionally acceptable government to keep higher quality services. For example, if the general level of trust in government grind down, and less people consider that “public service” has a constructive meaning, then government may not be able to extract a more thoughtful reaction amongst its employees than the private sector. Instead, if the market control that government had in the labor market grind down, as biased barriers in the private sector turn down, then the government may be fewer able to hire high quality workers at lower wages. Questionably, both of these things have occurred in recent years, perhaps providing one reason for the high interest in superior private provision of social services.

Finally, the part of competition in the provision of social services economists frequently take it as clear that competition will improve the market, and certainly there is extensive proof that greater competition in markets does reduce inefficiencies. There is, however, small proof on the position of competition in the provision of social services. In evaluation the proof for school vouchers, Levin (1998) comments that the proof in favor of competition is relatively weak. The key issue is whether competition, in spite of its optimistic belongings on competence, may have negative effects on quality.

The query of whether specific markets be unsuccessful, and whether rearrangement could in standard be approved out, receive far more discussion among economists than the questions of whether markets actually fail, whether government Intervention in these markets get better or worsen matters, and whether diverse. Yet the alternative between varieties of policies for government involvement depends on the real act of such Policies. This final section outlines numerous areas where further research will give in high returns in informing the debate on choice of public policies in the ground of Education and health care.

Only some people oppose that some government participation in the provision of social services is essential. But there are a broad variety of opinions regarding the favored nature of public participation. The narrower analysis is that a few form of regulation, together with earnings supplementation, is typically as far as the government must exit. The broader idea fall out for much larger government manage, ownership and management in some region.

The following dimensions are as follows:

The level of apprehension by agency problems and the level of faith in government’s skill to be wisely. The more powerfully one think that neither receiver nor their families can make well-organized decisions, and the more impressively one believes in the capacity of the government to improve individual or social conclusion by intervening in individual option, the more probable one is to retain more wide public involvement in the social services.

The levels of apprehension over the difficulty in gather and allocate information on quality of services. The more that one considers measurable principles of quality are capable to be observed in the social service field, the powerful the argument for government rule of the private sector moderately than government management. The one believes that non-governmental agencies can give likely suggestion of quality in a definite market, as of their long-term position concern, or because of the nature of the market, the less duty for government ownership or management.

The extent that equity and universalism are emphasized. The extremely one standards universal values for a service, or that one desires all persons to receive equal services, as powerful the argument for public ownership and management. The more that stratification, arrangement, and discrepancy taste-based choices are favored, the stronger the argument for private ownership and management.

The factor of trust in the public sector. one suppose the public sector to be effective, with good public management and without problems of deceit; the likely to believe that the government can give higher quality social services without losing too much in effectiveness likewise, as one believes in the inspiring factor of public service and the capability of government to acquire strong assertion from their workers, the superior quality services one is expected from the public sector.

The majority of the economists and policymaker can genuinely disagree about how they assess these issues. According to them there remain a number of parts where the direct government provision of social services is not in fact as good as than, and beside at least some level may be better than more privatized provision. The distinguishing nature of the social service region, with numerous forms goes beyond market failure, gives an opportunity for well-organized government participation that may not be justified in numerous other division of the economy.

Blank, R., 2000, When can public policy makers rely on private markets? The effective provision of social services, Economic Journal, 110, pp. C34-C49.

Helm, D., 1986, The assessment: the economic borders of the state, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 2(2), pp. i-xxiv.

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How Did Napoleon Create And Maintain Power History Essay

In George Orwell’s famous novel Animal Farm, Napoleon used many tools of propaganda to gain power and control over the farm. The sheep perhaps were his most important tools throughout the novel. They were, without doubt, a deciding factor in Napoleon’s rise to power.

From the very start Napoleon had been an obvious leader among the pigs because he was well known for “getting things his own way”. By contributing to the various debates that took place in animal farm, he often received lots of attention from the animals. He also gained support from some animals that were too shy to express themselves; he connected with them and persuaded them to share his views. Hence, he became a representative of these animals.

Napoleon also used propaganda in various situations to gain power. The sheep were the most susceptible to these methods and were a great help to his campaign. Snowball, the other pig who shared the position of leadership with him did not agree with him on many occasions. However, naturally he was a good speaker and could easily reach the animals minds and gain support with his speeches alone. So, Napoleon trained the liable sheep to start chanting their favourite slogan ‘four legs good, two legs bad’ at crucial parts of Snowball’s speeches to drown him out, which made it incredibly difficult for him to express his point of view to them. Because of this, Snowball could not gain much support which was exactly what Napoleon wanted. All Napoleon had to do was to put down Snowballs ideas to gain support as the animals could not be convinced by Snowball if they could not listen to him.

Napoleon gained total control over animal farm through exiling Snowball. Regardless of Napoleon’s efforts, Snowball managed to get most of the animals support on the matter of the windmill. Napoleon knew Snowball was a great threat to his position. If Napoleon did not act soon, Snowball would soon become the undisputable leader of Animal Farm. So he got rid of this threat. Using the dogs he had secretly trained, he banished Snowball from the farm. Without Snowball around, Napoleon became the undisputed leader himself. He then banned the debates and told the animals they would follow orders instead. He did this so the animals would be powerless in any decisions made on the farm. Napoleon would be running the farm without anyone there to disagree with any decisions he made.

He later sent Squealer to justify his actions. Squealer twists the truth with lies to confuse the animals to think Napoleon was right in exiling Snowball. Some phrases he uses are; “Do not imagine leadership is a pleasure" and "it is a deep and heavy responsibility” [1]. These make Napoleon seem sacrificial, which will help gain the animals’ sympathy. He also uses the animals’ fear of Jones coming back to persuade them that Napoleon is right.

He creates power using many methods. Making the animals March past Old Major’s skull is reinforcing his leadership and also allies himself with the loved pig. It makes the animals respect the new leader as much as the old leader. In Napoleons’ speeches he uses the word ‘sacrifice’ and ‘own contribution’ to make the animals think that what they are doing is for a greater cause which convinces them to "sacrifice’ for the ‘greater good’. Napoleon uses Squealer to explain anything and everything to avoid making mistakes himself. Squealer uses complicated vocabulary which the simple-minded animals do not understand. When the animals protest, squealer quickly persuades them with help from the threat of violence from the dogs; it makes the animals stop with their complaints. The sheep are then used to ease the mood by bleating their slogan. It is then not possible for the animals to protest again. Throughout the novel, it becomes routine for the dogs to be seen in public with Napoleon to reinforce his power through violence.

Napoleon also makes the animals work so hard that they are so tired and they forget how they are being turned into slaves by their leader Napoleon. They also have no time to consider rebelling against him. He does this by making the animals build the snowballs windmill that he considered useless when snowball thought of it. To explain this, he tells the animals that it was originally his idea. Napoleon exploit’s the animals’ weaknesses. When he changes the seven commandments to justify his actions, the animals are doubtful because they remember that the seven commandments were different. However Squealer tells them that they are wrong and it is just a figment of their imagination. The animals think that if napoleon says so then he must be right and so they let him get away with it.

Napoleon is an opportunist. When he realises that he can turn a situation, whether good or bad, to his advantage, he does without a second thought about whom or what might have to be removed in order for him to succeed. For example, when the windmill collapses, he tells that Snowball destroyed it and turns the animals against him. From that point onwards he makes Snowball a scapegoat. Whenever something goes wrong, it is because of Snowball. This makes the animals feel that they are lucky to have Napoleon as a leader. It is also an easy way out as it keeps the animals from finding out who is really to blame. This reinforces Napoleon’s leadership position as he will not be blamed for anything that goes wrong and creates the vision that Napoleon’s is a perfect leader. With his decision regarding the timber, he uses Snowball to back him up. Since the animals are against him, the farm he is not selling to will have Snowball hiding there. This makes the animals support his decision.

He maintains power through various means. By rarely appearing in public he makes it seem that he has more important matters than the animals and that they should be lucky when he does appear. Through the various killings, he eliminates anyone who is a likely threat to his leadership such as the four porkers. The others who are killed had always angered him in some way or form, such as the hens who decided to rebel; they were killed as a warning not to disobey him. At the same time, he further destroys Snowball’s reputation by making the animals confess that he was planning to kill napoleon. By using statistics, another form of lies, he convinces the naïve animals that the farm has grown and flourished under his rule, again making him appear an admirable leader.

There are other methods he uses to maintain power. He is given tittles like ‘Protector of the sheepfold’ to make the animals see his acts of sacrifice and his birthday is celebrated which makes him appear like a god, as the animals must celebrate the day he was born to thank god for his birth. He even has a poem about his greatness inscribed on the wall with a portrait of him next to it just opposite the seven commandments. This makes him appear as powerful as the very principles of animalism.

He is guarded by dogs and has a food taster so that he cannot be poisoned. He spreads rumours about the terrible state that the animals on other farms are kept to make the animals feel privileged to be in animal farm. He shows his ‘brilliance’ by letting the animals see the banknotes he traded for the timber. This shows the animals that there are many luxuries to be gained under napoleon’s rule. He makes everything seem like a victory to cover up his mistakes and to keep the animals from blaming him. An example would be the blowing up of the windmill. It makes the animals feel that although there was a ‘slight’ loss they still won. This can be seen when he uses the phrase “readjustments instead of reductions” [1] to make reducing of food seem not too bad. There are more celebrations to cover up the animals hunger and needs.

Animal farm is also proclaimed as a republic, with Napoleon as its president to make it appear as if he is just watching over the animals and not controlling them. He allows Moses to remain when he returns as he spreads false hope which makes the animals continue labouring, hoping that if life is bad now, maybe one day, Moses’ stories might come true and life will be better. When Boxer, the highly respected horse and role model among the animals is taken away to be slaughtered, the animals are told that he received the best medical care available but was unable to be kept alive. Boxer’s death is then manipulated to Napoleon’s advantage. Napoleon tells the animals that Boxer’s last words were Napoleon is always right. Since this was one of Boxer’s favourite mottos, it is a likely lie. The animals then make this their own motto to respect their beloved Boxer. This works out incredibly well for Napoleon.

Napoleon was a treacherous character and very much an opportunist of the worst kind. He used brilliance, cunning, treachery, propaganda and many other tools to gain, create and maintain power. Animal farm remained under his tyranny throughout the entire novel.

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Affects Of Recession On Texas Florida Newyork California Economics Essay

The National Bureau of Economic Research announced in December of 2007 that the United Stated economy had entered into a recession. The Business Cycle can be used as an indicator of the economic activity of the United States economy, and it indicates that the economic expansion is over, we have peaked and are now contracting. Texas, Florida, New York and California are all states that have been affected by the recession. These states have however had different impacts due to the different dynamics that makeup each individual state. Texas, Florida, New York and California have all had an impact on unemployment. All of these states have suffered from economic contractions and have yet to recover. Demand for labor is what increases or decreases the unemployment rate. (See graph # 1) Currently there is a high supply of labor but low demand for it, which is causing the increases in unemployment. Due to the economy being in such disarray, we are actually experiencing different kinds of unemployment, we are experiencing frictional and structural unemployment. In accordance with the Employment Act of 1946 which requires the government to use Keynesian Economics to maintain full employment in the United States, the government has interfered in hopes of stabilizing the economy. Therefore the government has used fiscal policy to implement a number of tax cuts in an effort to jump starting the economy. Tax cuts put more income in people’s pockets which enable them to consume more, more consumption leads to more need for production, more need for production leads to more need for labor, more need for labor in the long run leads to a decrease in unemployment. This circular flow pattern is known as the Circular Flow Model of economics. A decrease of unemployment nationally of course means a decrease in the unemployment rate for Texas, Florida, New York and California.

While many of the other states that account for the United States started feeling the effects of the recession that began in December of 2007, Texas continued to prosper gaining jobs for months after the announcement. “The Texas economy continued to grow through most of 2008, with employment peeking in August that year, then Texas joined the nation in loosing jobs.” (www.texasahead.org), 2010 The Texas unemployment rate did not begin to decrease until nearly a year after the United States reached its peek and began a contraction with the start of the economic recession that we are currently facing. Even after August when Texas did finally begin loosing jobs the Texas unemployment rate managed to stay below the National rate. “The Texas unemployment rate held steady over the past two months….and remains lower then the national rate of 9.7 percent,” said Tom Pariken, chairman of the Texas workforce commission. (Case 2010) At the time of chairman Pariken’s statement, the Texas unemployment rate was 8.2 percent. During 2008 the Texas economy continued to gain jobs because of its exports with Mexico, the slower house building segment and its high energy prices. (Case 2009) During this economic downfall for other states Texas still had a demand for labor which helped keep the unemployment rate down compared to other states and the United States as a whole. Texas had an economic advantage due to the states dynamics and location. The fact that it is a border state with Mexico gives it a tremendous advantage in times of economic struggles.

The U.S Labor Department reported the nation’s unemployment rate went up to 8.5% in March, as the employers eliminated 663,000 jobs. Since December 2007 we have been in a rescission; the United States has lost a net total of 5.7 million jobs. According to the St. Petersburg Times, Florida stopped laying off employees in the month of April, by helping the state’s unemployment rate drop to 9.8 percent to 9.6 percent. The Economy is doing very poorly and many upper class workers are finding themselves out of jobs. “If the economic situation was to get better, there is no guarantee that jobs will pick up again. Actually Florida was one of only six states that did not lose as many jobs in April. Some think otherwise. (Snaith) said “Once production increases, businesses will be able to meet the needs with the people they have. Even the Tampa Bay area had lost 53,400 jobs in the past year.

The national unemployment rate is 8.9 percent, up from 8.5 percent in March. The unemployment rate is not always dependable. There have been many surveys sent to households that ask Americans if they are looking for work still. Therefore people who have stopped looking for work are not marked as unemployed. The value of unemployment benefits in Florida differs from that of other states because each state unemployment office gives its own formulas and limits when adding the level of unemployment compensation. (Scott Powers), said that, “Florida lost more than 21,000 jobs in July from the month before, and its unemployment rate jumped to 6.1 percent the worst in more than 13 years. The way the economy is going in the state of Florida, it might take up to three years before Florida can recover and regain its financial hold.

“To help reinvigorate Florida’s economy, Gov. Charlie Crist recently announced the infusion of $165 million in federal economic stimulus funds directly benefit both job seekers and businesses,” said Cynthia Lorenzo, interim director of the Agency for Workforce innovation. www.bizjournals.com . In a recession, demand deficient unemployment will increase, if firms close down this causes employers to lay off workers. Therefore, it is very important that the government tries to boost AD which is call, (Aggregated Demand), and increase the rate of economic growth. The expansionary fiscal policy is to lower the taxes and rise the government spending. This will increase the AD and meanwhile, higher growth and jobs will be produced by reducing unemployment. If AD increases too fast, it will cause inflation.

The government also said that in the month of January and February Florida had inflation of 3%, but in January the inflation rate was 3.01%. So based off the rates, instead of the inflation rate being “flat”, it will be rising. Overall, I think we are slowly moving out of the rescission, and getting the economy back up and running.

According to an article in the New York Times it stated that in the past 30 years the unemployment rate in New York City has been at its peak more than any other country in the nation. It was also stated later in the article that the reason that the unemployment is so high is because of the lack of educated people in the city. A lot of them are high school drop outs, and then still don’t recover from such a thing. College graduates are 4.2% in the city as of 2009. Even with that lack of uneducated people they seem to be working with it very well. Unlike some others cities New York isn’t in the double digits like the other cities that were researched in this paper. In this city the supply for jobs are very high, but the demand for high school and college educations are low. I believe that if their education system was better than the unemployment might not be so high even with us being in a recession. Also according to the New York Times, New York’s concentration on talent made it easy for employment to stay high. People would also say the reason that people are still unemployed is because the people who do have jobs are being greedy. Unemployment will always be a big issue especially now that we are in this recession. I personally think that this is going to be really hard to fix. I believe that it starts all in the beginning like I stated before. This city is also one of the biggest cities in America so more people in the city do more jobs that you are going to need. I believe that if they were to pack up and move down South things would probably get a little better because the cost of living is not so expensive. Mainstream economics believes that unemployment is inevitable and is almost necessary to prevent inflation. According to Wikipedia trying to reduce unemployment is almost impossible because it will only result in less output and more inflation. In the end I believe that persistence will get you anywhere, and I believe that there are more jobs available they just keep them for the ones that want it the most.

In 1990 the unemployment rate in California was under 6%. In mid 1992 the unemployment rate reached a little over 10%. From 1993 to mid 2000 the unemployment rate decreased from 10% to around 4%. From 2001 to 2008 the average unemployment was 6%. Since 2008 there was a dramatic increase in unemployment. Since November 2009 the unemployment rate was 12.4%. In February 2010 California reached a record breaking 12.8%, the highest unemployment rate in California’s history. It was the fifth highest unemployment rate in the nation, 2.254 million people were unemployed. Only a few jobs gained employees during the recession; Educational and Health services, Information, and Financial Activities. Several jobs contributed to the recession by laying off employees in area such as; Government, Trade, Transportation, Utilities, Construction, and Manufacturing. Millions of people lost their jobs due to the recession. Millions of state officials lost their jobs as a result they had to work part-time at less paying jobs. Many people suffered from depression and committed suicide. Over 700 thousand people were receiving unemployment insurance benefits during the recession. The recession took a toll on many individuals, and many jobs were lost. The best way for someone to handle another recession is to have money saved in their bank, have other skills/trades that will always be needed, and a stable mind frame to keep moving forward.

The recession that the United States entered into in December of 2007 has taken its toll on many states, including Texas, Florida, New York and California. All these states have suffered from an increase in unemployment. Texas did not face the unemployment crisis until nearly a year later and has managed to keep the unemployment rate below the national level. Texas is still suffering just like Florida, New York, and California. All four states are experiencing economic contractions but the efforts to boost moral and consumption appear to be working. The unemployment rate has decreased slightly and will hopefully return to the pre December 2007 rate. If this happens then the government will have taken the appropriate actions to insure that Texas, Florida, New York, and California as well as the rest of the nation recover and expand economically.

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Effects Of Globalized Capitalism On Kenya History Essay

 

Living in the United states we tend to be sheltered from the lives and proceedings of other countries. Many of the African countries, aside from everyone blaming them for the spread of Aids, are kept a silent mystery for the most part. Kenya, as i will research, i feel Globalization and the culture of capitalism maybe haven't found their way to Kenya(due to its culture of poverty), or Globalization plainly has not been good for Kenya and its people.

The history of the colonized settlement of what on june 11 1920 became Kenya, can be given credit to that of the Masai Tribe from the northern parts of Africa as having settled and sustained life for generations, where they still currently reside. They may have migrated from the north in the mid 18th century establishing themselves and dominating the land around them up until the present day. The East African Protectorate (aka Kenya) at the time was run by the Sultan of Zanzibar who ultimately claimed imminent domain of this country and had the name changed to his liking. (Geographical Journal).

Roughly within the 1800's, while Kenya was formerly known as the East African Protectorate, Britain leased land from the Sultan of Zanzibar creating the Britain Protectorate. Its been said that people were encouraged to migrate from South Africa, and parts of Britain, creating settlements in the Highlands (where there were large amounts of undeveloped land) with intentions to create a profit from establishing a rail line (shipping goods) to separate ends of what later became the Colony of Kenya. These people had migrated with the intention to further develop land, however, many seemed to lack the help or the funds for help, and this is where African slave labor, or slave trade began. The more affluent settlers began to take on the help of indentured indians they brought over, and this is where the exploitation and inhumanity of a culture and its people began. Those that couldn't afford to hire the indians bought into the slave labor, forcing the impoverished africans to work, or else they were abused, or land would further be taken from them. In 1920 the two Protectorates joined forces and changed their name to the Republic of Kenya, building a new constitution. Kenya at the time was becoming largely prosperous and many people began migrating over in search of a new and better life, as well as looking for food and labor. This created quite a bit of tension, as Britain migrated many indians over as indenture slaves, dis-regarding the Africans ability to work, as Kenya was trying to establish herself as an African country, and wanted to keep it inherently to natives of Africa. The problem at the time was that the money was coming from the Brits so the colonization of Africa and her people were automatically accustomed to slavery and the de-colonization (dispossession of their land) from the beginning. As these new settlers found work, many of the natives were unable to employ work as well as they are dispossessed from their own land, moving them to reservations and only allowing the white Europeans access to the fertile farming land (similar to that of Native Americans).(www.worldhistory.net) There really wasn't much change in progress with Kenyan rights and dominance of her land until after World War 2, when a native African was finally elected to office. The lives of Kenyans would soon change as the expanse of colonialism would keep them oppressed and away from Kenya's economical success over the formative years of Kenya's youth. It wasn't until the 1960s that Kenya started to gain its independence and allow its people comfort with its first African political party. Kenya finally began to prosper as it opened up its doors to outside investors and the economy grew until it suddenly began to flounder again in the 1990's under a new colonial rule and its on going political corruption, as well as the prevalence of AIDS/HIV. (Oxford Journal).

The population of Kenya has grown substantially over the years, however the true consensus of the population will never be fully grasped as the dementor AIDS plays a huge rule in dividing the population ever so frequently. The population in Kenya is roughly 40 million people and ever expanding as birth control is not of main priority of its inhabitants. Due to Aids, the life expectancy is lowered dramatically and their are higher infant mortality rates as well.

The main tribes of Kenya are the Boni, which seem to migrate in and out of Kenya and Somalia looking for food and labor, as well as the Maasai, who mainly roam Kenya looking for food, who wish to remain a part of their own culture and traditions and not be forced into modern forms of work. The rest of the population consists of other African migrants, as well as British and Indian immigrants.

Kenyans to this day seem to struggle to find work, with its lack of economic diversity which lends itself to lack of opportunity. Whether its because foreigners still reign the labor aspect of the economy, or the economy is under such distress that it seems it cant produce enough work for the large population, as 40% of the population is unemployed. At least half of Kenya's inhabitants lives at or below the poverty line, giving us an idea as to why there are political uprisings every so often, as the people of Kenya want to be treated fair and humane, seeking proper humane and civil rights just as the rest of the world.(www.cia.gov) At least half of the people living in rural areas in Kenya are living in poverty. 75% of the population find themselves living in rural areas and and the rest in urban environments. At least three quarters of the population rely on the land for food and for jobs.

In terms of Consumption Kenyans don't consume nearly the amount of resources we here in the states consume, but for the size of the population and the struggling economy they do ok keeping up with the rest of the world in the amount of products they distribute. Their GDP is estimated around $31 Billion, give or take. It was said back in 2001 the average household consumes in a year only $215 US dollars to put how extremely poor many Kenyans truly are in perspective. Somewhere between one quarter and one half of the population earns less than one U.S. dollar per day. They consume roughly 76,000 barrels of oil per day, (to our 19.6 million per day) which ranks them at 86th in the world. They consume roughly 4.86 billion kilowatts of Electricity per capita,(to our 13.638) which rates them at 107 in the world. Even though the population of Kenya doesn't compare to that of the U.S., Kenya consumes 320 times less resources than we do here in the States. That says a lot about the frugality and the lack of economy of the Republic of Kenya. (www.cia.gov) The biggest problem that Kenya faces in terms of Consumption, is with its waste management. Many people today are composting to help save the waste piles from growing, but with so many people unemployed and uneducated its hard to turn their focus to being eco-friendly. With the rapid growth of population its hard to keep up with the amount of waste people are creating thus allowing the spread of landfills/diseases the ability to increase as the welfare of the people continues to decrease.(www.sciencedirect.com)

Kenya, with its lack of Economical success, claims there are roughly 4 million people that live in constant hunger. These people have found themselves dwelling in a culture of poverty they cant seem to pick themselves up out of. With their lack of access to clean potable water, healthcare and education, many Kenyans continue to have babies and spread diseases, living without the primitive amenities many of us take for granted. The weather plays a crucial role in terms of why people migrate to urban areas looking for work and food. The erratic weather forces many people to starve as the arid climates cant produce enough precipitation for those who farm to produce enough food for their people. Sex work is a large part of the underground economy, which has also given rise to the spread of disease. Aside from poor weather, poor governmental policies and bad international trades seem to hinder the potential for better agriculture practices. So in the meantime half of Kenya struggles to survive, hungry, living in very desolate places mostly because the hierarchy selfishly denies its people humane rights.(www.kenya-advisor.com)

Not only does the weather play a factor in the environment, government deforestation and soil erosion often leads to poor agriculture practices leaving even more farmers to migrate in search of undeveloped (not ruined) land. With only 8 percent of land actually able to be farmed and 75 percent of the workforce work as farmers, we see why the environment causes devastation among the natives. Water pollution from the lack of proper waste management leaves a lot of the clean water under distress. The government doesn't put its money back into the treatment of water as it should, nor does it focus much attention on irrigating what little land they have to produce food. (www.sciencedirect.com) The water quality is often really poor in most rural areas as globalization hits mostly urban areas, however, takes what few resources it wants from the poor in those rural areas, leaving the water quality poor by polluting it with waste run off. Capitalism in urban areas of Kenya affect how everything is treated as we see its focus is never to clean the water or present the unemployed with jobs, but its to present its pockets with excess amounts of cash to go and squander in other countries as opposed to reinvesting into its own culture to raise the standards of the environment.

Aids runs rampant in and around Kenya. Kenya is home one of the worlds greatest epidemics of Aids. Whether this is due to lack of education or overpopulation Aids has had a presence in Kenya and taken many lives for the past few decades. Over the past 10 years or so, education and awareness about Aids and prevention has grown so has the death rate, however, the rate of people acquiring aids has dropped. Sex workers were the first group infected as they had no means of knowing how to prevent the spread of disease or prevent pregnancy. In 2000 13.6 percent of the population had acquired aids, and since then it has dropped by half with efforts to educate those with aids about the spread of the disease as well as educating children as increased. Each year since 2001 The governing bodies in Kenya have made drastic efforts to increase not only awareness of aids, but condom use and production as well (the geographic journal). Healthcare, in Kenya was free for many years after its independence, structuring free health care for everyone in its constitution. This was implanted with hopes that the free healthcare would in turn lead the economy towards great success if everyone was happy and healthy. However, over the years and with economic downturns the restructuring has left many people without the benefit of healthcare. Its said that in the U.S. their are 26 doctors to everyone 10,000 people, well in Kenya there is one doctor to every 10,000. With a struggling economy those fortunate enough to get educated and become doctors, 51% of them leave the country to seek a better life for them and their family leaving the country to deal with their lack of healthcare providers. The shortage of Doctors in Kenya have given the government problems with sustaining the health of its citizens as well as with the education and prevention of the widespread disease AIDS.

Everyone longs to live happy, full, rich lives. However, the indigenous tribes of Kenya struggle to do much of anything as the globalized markets have taken away most of their land and left them stripped with very little to survive. Their language and culture are threatened as modern globalization and tourism plays a major role in redeveloping the urban areas of Kenya. As money is scarce and many natives are being uprooted and moving to urban areas, they are being forced to work in sectors of markets they would never have worked. They are being forced to learn new languages to assimilate and fit in. As English and other languages continue to spread to remote parts of the world, the indigenous in Kenya, if they want to survive are almost forced to give up what they know, their culture, and change to accommodate the globalization that is taking place. Many businesses in this day and age of capitalism are seeking new markets, and new products so they have forced their way into the markets of the Africans, providing jobs (maybe), but forcing them to change and grow into the new modern cultures that are being created in the urban setting. (capitalism in Africa, science direct).

As poverty has cursed most of Kenya, the people riot for food and humanity mostly. As their agriculture cant sustain enough food for its people, the people in turn resist the government and protest for their lives (essentially). Many of the natives to Kenya are protesting oppression as they refuse to be displaced from their land for environmental destruction. Many people choose to not side with the modern political movements so they resist conforming to the modern ways of which globalization has affected their cultures. Since the early 1990's people have taken to the streets to protest the hardships which have been caused mostly by political corruption, or by globalization. To this day people protest for Humane and civil rights, to expand the constitution to implement proper law to serve all of its people, not just those with capital. (Ray Bush, Journal of Agrarian Change).

In determining whether or not globalization has helped or hindered Kenya, i think its in plain sight that we see that the inequality and economic development which hurts their culture. Many people are forced out of their "homes" for agriculture use, or deforestation, or because their isn't food or potable water nearby. We see that healthcare isn't sustaining the needs of the people, as many doctors leave their culture in search of a better life, where food and money may be in abundance. We see that people are forced to riot for food and against oppression as well as saving the identity of their culture. With labor markets not possessing enough jobs for people, this allows for us all to see that Kenya cant provide for its people the simple necessities of life. With many people being forced to learn other languages and/or cultures, it doesn't readily help the natives adapt, it helps the big business adapt as they use the people to redeem a profit. You would think with the severity of AIDS, and the high death rates, that politicians would do anything to sever the relationship with AIDS and their people, to help bring the country back to a a prosperous land, and allow it to be a place that welcomes any and all cultures, but doesn't force one onto the other, forcing people to leave their identity for another one on the behalf of globalization.

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Eisenhower A Politician And General History Essay

 

The United States along with Britain, Canada, and other Allied countries had begun on their mission to defeat Germany in Europe. To do this, they had to first start in France which had been under German control since June 22, 1940. The Beaches of Normandy were the perfect gateway into the German frontier and were a vital location to be captured. As commander of the Allied forces in Operation Overlord, Dwight D. Eisenhower was the most significant member in his ability to foster cooperation through outstanding leadership qualities. Eisenhower, with a variety of techniques and skills, earned himself this title through what he was able to accomplish both politically and militarily. Without what Eisenhower brought to the table due to his political and military backgrounds, the largest sea to land invasion to this day would not have ran as smoothly as it did.

Eisenhower first began his tremendous military career graduating 61st out of a class of 164 from West Point. After graduating in September of 1915, he was commissioned a Second Lieutenant of Infantry and reported to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. Eisenhower served with the Infantry until February 1918. He then served with the Tank Corps until January 1922. He was promoted to First Lieutenant on July 1, 1916, Captain on May 15, 1917, Major (temporarily) on June 17, 1918 and to Lieutenant Colonel (temporarily) on October 14, 1918. On June 30, 1920, he was reverted to permanent rank of Captain and on July 2, 1920 was promoted to Major. In January 1922, Eisenhower was assigned as executive officer to Brigadier General Fox Conner in the Panama Canal Zone. Conner was an expert on military history and they spent hours talking about military and international problems. Eisenhower said, “Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew.” Connor arranged for Eisenhower to attend the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He then graduated in 1926 as the top student in a class of almost 250. Eisenhower then went on to be the top of his class at the Army War College. He continued to excel in staff assignments serving under both General Douglas MacArthur and General Walter Krueger. After Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941, General George C. Marshall called Eisenhower to Washington for an assignment as head of the War Plans Division. (Dwight David Eisenhower)

Now the time had come to prepare for the greatest land and sea invasion the world has ever seen. Dwight Eisenhower was put in as Commander of the European theater and it was his job to plan and execute the operation. Eisenhower knew the task to invade Hitler’s “Fortress Europe” was going to be a difficult and bloody one. The ports of Le Havre and Cherbourg were massively fortified and therefore would not be good landing spots. This caused Eisenhower to select five landing sites on 21 miles of sandy beaches. The American beaches included Utah and Omaha on the west and the British and Canadian beaches Gold, Sword, and Juno to the east. Prior to the actual invasion Eisenhower had the Allied planes photograph enemy defenses, drop supplies to the resistance, bomb railways, attack Germany's industries and isolate the battlefield. The Allied Navel forces were ordered to escort convoys, patrol and protect the English Channel, scout out beaches and beach defenses, and conducted numerous amphibious rehearsals. Meanwhile, the three airborne and six infantry divisions from the United States, Britain and Canada trained and rehearsed their roles in operation. (Normandy)

Politically, Eisenhower was faced with a very difficult task. He was forced to be in charge of the complete cooperation between the forces of three Allied countries. The Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), was formed so that it was the only organization that gave orders to Eisenhower; it was the nearest thing possible to having only one government in which to answer. The objective of Eisenhower’s headquarters was to build a structure of command and staff that emphasized Allied unity and the cooperation of the several national armed forces that would fight the battles. Eisenhower therefore selected men he knew from his previous staffs and blended British and American officers into a single organization. The primary objective of the SHAEF staff, Eisenhower said was to, "utilize the resources of two great nations . . . with the decisiveness of a single authority." This was not an easy task for him; it forced him to create a technical and emotional atmosphere necessary for the Allied command to function properly. He began to face more problems when Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory argued that poor landing zones and German resistance would result in the "futile slaughter" of two fine airborne divisions. Eisenhower strongly insisted that the landings could not proceed otherwise and overrode his air commander's objections.

In the end, Eisenhower proved to be correct in this issue; his determination to prevail in the debates reinforced his authority as Supreme Commander. (Dwight David Eisenhower)

Now the time had come for Operation Overlord to take place. Originally, Eisenhower decided that June 5th would be D day, but poor weather conditions the day before forced him to postpone the invasion until the 6th. Some ships had already left port and had to be recalled. The elements were crucial in planning the attack. Another delay would have meant putting the whole operation off until at least the 19th, the next date when the moon and tides would be optimal for an attack. Once the pieces of the Operation Overlord had been set in motion, there was nothing more the Supreme Commander could do to affect the results. He placed the issue in the hands of the few thousand brave men at the five beaches of Gold, Sword, Juno, Omaha, and Utah. (Roberts)

Before the amphibious invasion began Eisenhower organized a series of airborne operations. In the west, planes dropped several hundreds of American parachutists belonging to the 101st and 82nd airborne divisions to control the surrounding roads. This was done in order to slow down the German counter-attacks following the landing. In the East, the 6th British airborne division was charged to carry out the same work. Bridges in the east of the invasion area were crucial objectives that the parachutists had to capture. Of the 18.000 parachutists, about a half was killed. Germans became more and more disorientated and the communications to their front did not pass efficiently any more. The landing could now finally begin. (D-Day Normandy)

Though badly scattered and lacking much of their equipment, the brave paratroopers kept the Germans occupied and helped ensure that the "Utah" Beach assault went relatively easily. The British and Canadian attacks, assisted by an air-dropped division on their eastern flank and a longer naval bombardment, also went well. In the "Omaha" area, deep beaches backed by steep hills meant that the U.S. troops landing there were exposed to heavy fire from enemy small arms, machine guns and artillery. Casualties were very great and the assault only succeeded after a day of brutal fighting, with warships coming in close to provide direct gunfire in support of the hard-pressed soldiers. The casualities for the Allied troops on D-day were 53,700 dead, 18,000 missing, 155,000 wounded. For the German troops it was 200,000 dead, wounded and missing as well as 200,000 captured. The Allies won the battle, liberating France and Western Europe from the German Army. (D-Day)

Through D-Day, Eisenhower's most marked characteristics were his unfailing optimism about the success of the invasion and his determination to overcome all obstacles that stood in its way. As more operations during the war developed across northern Europe, Eisenhower demonstrated an exceptional mental flexibility that allowed him to exploit German weaknesses. Since the earlier days with Fox Conner, Eisenhower hated poor planning and considered it potentially dangerous. From August of 1944 through the end of the war, he made a series of important decisions that changed the course of the war. (D-Day)

With Europe in the early stages of reconstruction, Eisenhower returned to the United States in November 1945 to replace his mentor as Chief of Staff of the United States Army. George C. Marshall had overseen the building of the largest Army in the nation's history; Eisenhower presided over the postwar demobilization of that Army. He found himself testifying before Congress to oppose cuts in the military that would hinder the ability to defend American interests in the postwar world. With the passage of the National Security Act of 1947, Eisenhower became the Army's first Chief of Staff to participate in the newly created unified Joint Chiefs of Staff. In 1948 he retired from the Army to become president of Columbia University. (Dwight D. Eisenhower)

In December 1950, at the request of the European allies, President Harry Truman recalled Eisenhower to become the Supreme Allied Commander, where he directed the buildup of military forces for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In dealing with the creation of a defense against the threat of Communism, Eisenhower and his Allied staff worked within the constraints of a Europe that was recovering from the damages of World War II and still stood on the edge of economic collapse. His most enduring contribution was developing a sense of partnership and self-confidence among the NATO member nations. Europeans found that they could trust a man who shared their desire for peace. Eisenhower believed that his NATO command was unique. It was the first time, as he later commented, that a multinational army was created "to preserve the peace and not to wage war." (Ike's D-Day)

In 1952 he accepted the Republican Party's nomination for President of the United States and defeated Democrat Adlai E. Stevenson in the November elections. The quality of leadership that distinguished Eisenhower the soldier also served him well in the presidency. The diverse challenges of more than thirty years of service in the Army and as an international leader increased his natural gift for command. He had the considerable advantage that many of the leaders of the postwar world were old friends whom he had come to know well during the war, and with whom he already had a sound working relationship. Eisenhower's military experience also proved invaluable in determining his style of Presidential leadership. Based on techniques that had served him well in SHAEF and NATO, he used a chief of staff to keep track of the day-to-day operations, freeing him to keep a close eye on all of the administration's business. The new President's major concern was the continued quest for international peace that had been his focus in his years with NATO. (Normandy)

Through all of his accomplishments Dwight D. Eisenhower had proven himself as one of the best politician-generals the United States of American had ever seen. His brilliant tactics became a significant reason the Allies were able to win World War II. Without Eisenhower’s decisive plans conquering Hitler’s “Fortress Europe” would have been nearly impossible given all he did. The central fact about Dwight David Eisenhower is that he accepted the responsibility for making important decisions at critical points in the history of his nation and the world. The most dramatic of those decisions, and the ones for which he had consciously prepared himself throughout a long military career, produced the Allied victory in Europe in 1945. He dedicated himself to the cause of peace during his eight years in the White House. He won the trust and confidence of the common man, both in the United States and the world. To Eisenhower, as a soldier and as a statesman, duty came first. This is best shown in his speech in June of 1945 after being awarded the Freedom of the City of London. "Humility must always be the portion of any man who receives acclaim earned in the blood of his followers and the sacrifices of his friends." (Ike's D-Day)

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