Affects Of Recession On Texas Florida Newyork California Economics Essay

The National Bureau of Economic Research announced in December of 2007 that the United Stated economy had entered into a recession. The Business Cycle can be used as an indicator of the economic activity of the United States economy, and it indicates that the economic expansion is over, we have peaked and are now contracting. Texas, Florida, New York and California are all states that have been affected by the recession. These states have however had different impacts due to the different dynamics that makeup each individual state. Texas, Florida, New York and California have all had an impact on unemployment. All of these states have suffered from economic contractions and have yet to recover. Demand for labor is what increases or decreases the unemployment rate. (See graph # 1) Currently there is a high supply of labor but low demand for it, which is causing the increases in unemployment. Due to the economy being in such disarray, we are actually experiencing different kinds of unemployment, we are experiencing frictional and structural unemployment. In accordance with the Employment Act of 1946 which requires the government to use Keynesian Economics to maintain full employment in the United States, the government has interfered in hopes of stabilizing the economy. Therefore the government has used fiscal policy to implement a number of tax cuts in an effort to jump starting the economy. Tax cuts put more income in people’s pockets which enable them to consume more, more consumption leads to more need for production, more need for production leads to more need for labor, more need for labor in the long run leads to a decrease in unemployment. This circular flow pattern is known as the Circular Flow Model of economics. A decrease of unemployment nationally of course means a decrease in the unemployment rate for Texas, Florida, New York and California.

While many of the other states that account for the United States started feeling the effects of the recession that began in December of 2007, Texas continued to prosper gaining jobs for months after the announcement. “The Texas economy continued to grow through most of 2008, with employment peeking in August that year, then Texas joined the nation in loosing jobs.” (www.texasahead.org), 2010 The Texas unemployment rate did not begin to decrease until nearly a year after the United States reached its peek and began a contraction with the start of the economic recession that we are currently facing. Even after August when Texas did finally begin loosing jobs the Texas unemployment rate managed to stay below the National rate. “The Texas unemployment rate held steady over the past two months….and remains lower then the national rate of 9.7 percent,” said Tom Pariken, chairman of the Texas workforce commission. (Case 2010) At the time of chairman Pariken’s statement, the Texas unemployment rate was 8.2 percent. During 2008 the Texas economy continued to gain jobs because of its exports with Mexico, the slower house building segment and its high energy prices. (Case 2009) During this economic downfall for other states Texas still had a demand for labor which helped keep the unemployment rate down compared to other states and the United States as a whole. Texas had an economic advantage due to the states dynamics and location. The fact that it is a border state with Mexico gives it a tremendous advantage in times of economic struggles.

The U.S Labor Department reported the nation’s unemployment rate went up to 8.5% in March, as the employers eliminated 663,000 jobs. Since December 2007 we have been in a rescission; the United States has lost a net total of 5.7 million jobs. According to the St. Petersburg Times, Florida stopped laying off employees in the month of April, by helping the state’s unemployment rate drop to 9.8 percent to 9.6 percent. The Economy is doing very poorly and many upper class workers are finding themselves out of jobs. “If the economic situation was to get better, there is no guarantee that jobs will pick up again. Actually Florida was one of only six states that did not lose as many jobs in April. Some think otherwise. (Snaith) said “Once production increases, businesses will be able to meet the needs with the people they have. Even the Tampa Bay area had lost 53,400 jobs in the past year.

The national unemployment rate is 8.9 percent, up from 8.5 percent in March. The unemployment rate is not always dependable. There have been many surveys sent to households that ask Americans if they are looking for work still. Therefore people who have stopped looking for work are not marked as unemployed. The value of unemployment benefits in Florida differs from that of other states because each state unemployment office gives its own formulas and limits when adding the level of unemployment compensation. (Scott Powers), said that, “Florida lost more than 21,000 jobs in July from the month before, and its unemployment rate jumped to 6.1 percent the worst in more than 13 years. The way the economy is going in the state of Florida, it might take up to three years before Florida can recover and regain its financial hold.

“To help reinvigorate Florida’s economy, Gov. Charlie Crist recently announced the infusion of $165 million in federal economic stimulus funds directly benefit both job seekers and businesses,” said Cynthia Lorenzo, interim director of the Agency for Workforce innovation. www.bizjournals.com . In a recession, demand deficient unemployment will increase, if firms close down this causes employers to lay off workers. Therefore, it is very important that the government tries to boost AD which is call, (Aggregated Demand), and increase the rate of economic growth. The expansionary fiscal policy is to lower the taxes and rise the government spending. This will increase the AD and meanwhile, higher growth and jobs will be produced by reducing unemployment. If AD increases too fast, it will cause inflation.

The government also said that in the month of January and February Florida had inflation of 3%, but in January the inflation rate was 3.01%. So based off the rates, instead of the inflation rate being “flat”, it will be rising. Overall, I think we are slowly moving out of the rescission, and getting the economy back up and running.

According to an article in the New York Times it stated that in the past 30 years the unemployment rate in New York City has been at its peak more than any other country in the nation. It was also stated later in the article that the reason that the unemployment is so high is because of the lack of educated people in the city. A lot of them are high school drop outs, and then still don’t recover from such a thing. College graduates are 4.2% in the city as of 2009. Even with that lack of uneducated people they seem to be working with it very well. Unlike some others cities New York isn’t in the double digits like the other cities that were researched in this paper. In this city the supply for jobs are very high, but the demand for high school and college educations are low. I believe that if their education system was better than the unemployment might not be so high even with us being in a recession. Also according to the New York Times, New York’s concentration on talent made it easy for employment to stay high. People would also say the reason that people are still unemployed is because the people who do have jobs are being greedy. Unemployment will always be a big issue especially now that we are in this recession. I personally think that this is going to be really hard to fix. I believe that it starts all in the beginning like I stated before. This city is also one of the biggest cities in America so more people in the city do more jobs that you are going to need. I believe that if they were to pack up and move down South things would probably get a little better because the cost of living is not so expensive. Mainstream economics believes that unemployment is inevitable and is almost necessary to prevent inflation. According to Wikipedia trying to reduce unemployment is almost impossible because it will only result in less output and more inflation. In the end I believe that persistence will get you anywhere, and I believe that there are more jobs available they just keep them for the ones that want it the most.

In 1990 the unemployment rate in California was under 6%. In mid 1992 the unemployment rate reached a little over 10%. From 1993 to mid 2000 the unemployment rate decreased from 10% to around 4%. From 2001 to 2008 the average unemployment was 6%. Since 2008 there was a dramatic increase in unemployment. Since November 2009 the unemployment rate was 12.4%. In February 2010 California reached a record breaking 12.8%, the highest unemployment rate in California’s history. It was the fifth highest unemployment rate in the nation, 2.254 million people were unemployed. Only a few jobs gained employees during the recession; Educational and Health services, Information, and Financial Activities. Several jobs contributed to the recession by laying off employees in area such as; Government, Trade, Transportation, Utilities, Construction, and Manufacturing. Millions of people lost their jobs due to the recession. Millions of state officials lost their jobs as a result they had to work part-time at less paying jobs. Many people suffered from depression and committed suicide. Over 700 thousand people were receiving unemployment insurance benefits during the recession. The recession took a toll on many individuals, and many jobs were lost. The best way for someone to handle another recession is to have money saved in their bank, have other skills/trades that will always be needed, and a stable mind frame to keep moving forward.

The recession that the United States entered into in December of 2007 has taken its toll on many states, including Texas, Florida, New York and California. All these states have suffered from an increase in unemployment. Texas did not face the unemployment crisis until nearly a year later and has managed to keep the unemployment rate below the national level. Texas is still suffering just like Florida, New York, and California. All four states are experiencing economic contractions but the efforts to boost moral and consumption appear to be working. The unemployment rate has decreased slightly and will hopefully return to the pre December 2007 rate. If this happens then the government will have taken the appropriate actions to insure that Texas, Florida, New York, and California as well as the rest of the nation recover and expand economically.

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Effects Of Globalized Capitalism On Kenya History Essay

 

Living in the United states we tend to be sheltered from the lives and proceedings of other countries. Many of the African countries, aside from everyone blaming them for the spread of Aids, are kept a silent mystery for the most part. Kenya, as i will research, i feel Globalization and the culture of capitalism maybe haven't found their way to Kenya(due to its culture of poverty), or Globalization plainly has not been good for Kenya and its people.

The history of the colonized settlement of what on june 11 1920 became Kenya, can be given credit to that of the Masai Tribe from the northern parts of Africa as having settled and sustained life for generations, where they still currently reside. They may have migrated from the north in the mid 18th century establishing themselves and dominating the land around them up until the present day. The East African Protectorate (aka Kenya) at the time was run by the Sultan of Zanzibar who ultimately claimed imminent domain of this country and had the name changed to his liking. (Geographical Journal).

Roughly within the 1800's, while Kenya was formerly known as the East African Protectorate, Britain leased land from the Sultan of Zanzibar creating the Britain Protectorate. Its been said that people were encouraged to migrate from South Africa, and parts of Britain, creating settlements in the Highlands (where there were large amounts of undeveloped land) with intentions to create a profit from establishing a rail line (shipping goods) to separate ends of what later became the Colony of Kenya. These people had migrated with the intention to further develop land, however, many seemed to lack the help or the funds for help, and this is where African slave labor, or slave trade began. The more affluent settlers began to take on the help of indentured indians they brought over, and this is where the exploitation and inhumanity of a culture and its people began. Those that couldn't afford to hire the indians bought into the slave labor, forcing the impoverished africans to work, or else they were abused, or land would further be taken from them. In 1920 the two Protectorates joined forces and changed their name to the Republic of Kenya, building a new constitution. Kenya at the time was becoming largely prosperous and many people began migrating over in search of a new and better life, as well as looking for food and labor. This created quite a bit of tension, as Britain migrated many indians over as indenture slaves, dis-regarding the Africans ability to work, as Kenya was trying to establish herself as an African country, and wanted to keep it inherently to natives of Africa. The problem at the time was that the money was coming from the Brits so the colonization of Africa and her people were automatically accustomed to slavery and the de-colonization (dispossession of their land) from the beginning. As these new settlers found work, many of the natives were unable to employ work as well as they are dispossessed from their own land, moving them to reservations and only allowing the white Europeans access to the fertile farming land (similar to that of Native Americans).(www.worldhistory.net) There really wasn't much change in progress with Kenyan rights and dominance of her land until after World War 2, when a native African was finally elected to office. The lives of Kenyans would soon change as the expanse of colonialism would keep them oppressed and away from Kenya's economical success over the formative years of Kenya's youth. It wasn't until the 1960s that Kenya started to gain its independence and allow its people comfort with its first African political party. Kenya finally began to prosper as it opened up its doors to outside investors and the economy grew until it suddenly began to flounder again in the 1990's under a new colonial rule and its on going political corruption, as well as the prevalence of AIDS/HIV. (Oxford Journal).

The population of Kenya has grown substantially over the years, however the true consensus of the population will never be fully grasped as the dementor AIDS plays a huge rule in dividing the population ever so frequently. The population in Kenya is roughly 40 million people and ever expanding as birth control is not of main priority of its inhabitants. Due to Aids, the life expectancy is lowered dramatically and their are higher infant mortality rates as well.

The main tribes of Kenya are the Boni, which seem to migrate in and out of Kenya and Somalia looking for food and labor, as well as the Maasai, who mainly roam Kenya looking for food, who wish to remain a part of their own culture and traditions and not be forced into modern forms of work. The rest of the population consists of other African migrants, as well as British and Indian immigrants.

Kenyans to this day seem to struggle to find work, with its lack of economic diversity which lends itself to lack of opportunity. Whether its because foreigners still reign the labor aspect of the economy, or the economy is under such distress that it seems it cant produce enough work for the large population, as 40% of the population is unemployed. At least half of Kenya's inhabitants lives at or below the poverty line, giving us an idea as to why there are political uprisings every so often, as the people of Kenya want to be treated fair and humane, seeking proper humane and civil rights just as the rest of the world.(www.cia.gov) At least half of the people living in rural areas in Kenya are living in poverty. 75% of the population find themselves living in rural areas and and the rest in urban environments. At least three quarters of the population rely on the land for food and for jobs.

In terms of Consumption Kenyans don't consume nearly the amount of resources we here in the states consume, but for the size of the population and the struggling economy they do ok keeping up with the rest of the world in the amount of products they distribute. Their GDP is estimated around $31 Billion, give or take. It was said back in 2001 the average household consumes in a year only $215 US dollars to put how extremely poor many Kenyans truly are in perspective. Somewhere between one quarter and one half of the population earns less than one U.S. dollar per day. They consume roughly 76,000 barrels of oil per day, (to our 19.6 million per day) which ranks them at 86th in the world. They consume roughly 4.86 billion kilowatts of Electricity per capita,(to our 13.638) which rates them at 107 in the world. Even though the population of Kenya doesn't compare to that of the U.S., Kenya consumes 320 times less resources than we do here in the States. That says a lot about the frugality and the lack of economy of the Republic of Kenya. (www.cia.gov) The biggest problem that Kenya faces in terms of Consumption, is with its waste management. Many people today are composting to help save the waste piles from growing, but with so many people unemployed and uneducated its hard to turn their focus to being eco-friendly. With the rapid growth of population its hard to keep up with the amount of waste people are creating thus allowing the spread of landfills/diseases the ability to increase as the welfare of the people continues to decrease.(www.sciencedirect.com)

Kenya, with its lack of Economical success, claims there are roughly 4 million people that live in constant hunger. These people have found themselves dwelling in a culture of poverty they cant seem to pick themselves up out of. With their lack of access to clean potable water, healthcare and education, many Kenyans continue to have babies and spread diseases, living without the primitive amenities many of us take for granted. The weather plays a crucial role in terms of why people migrate to urban areas looking for work and food. The erratic weather forces many people to starve as the arid climates cant produce enough precipitation for those who farm to produce enough food for their people. Sex work is a large part of the underground economy, which has also given rise to the spread of disease. Aside from poor weather, poor governmental policies and bad international trades seem to hinder the potential for better agriculture practices. So in the meantime half of Kenya struggles to survive, hungry, living in very desolate places mostly because the hierarchy selfishly denies its people humane rights.(www.kenya-advisor.com)

Not only does the weather play a factor in the environment, government deforestation and soil erosion often leads to poor agriculture practices leaving even more farmers to migrate in search of undeveloped (not ruined) land. With only 8 percent of land actually able to be farmed and 75 percent of the workforce work as farmers, we see why the environment causes devastation among the natives. Water pollution from the lack of proper waste management leaves a lot of the clean water under distress. The government doesn't put its money back into the treatment of water as it should, nor does it focus much attention on irrigating what little land they have to produce food. (www.sciencedirect.com) The water quality is often really poor in most rural areas as globalization hits mostly urban areas, however, takes what few resources it wants from the poor in those rural areas, leaving the water quality poor by polluting it with waste run off. Capitalism in urban areas of Kenya affect how everything is treated as we see its focus is never to clean the water or present the unemployed with jobs, but its to present its pockets with excess amounts of cash to go and squander in other countries as opposed to reinvesting into its own culture to raise the standards of the environment.

Aids runs rampant in and around Kenya. Kenya is home one of the worlds greatest epidemics of Aids. Whether this is due to lack of education or overpopulation Aids has had a presence in Kenya and taken many lives for the past few decades. Over the past 10 years or so, education and awareness about Aids and prevention has grown so has the death rate, however, the rate of people acquiring aids has dropped. Sex workers were the first group infected as they had no means of knowing how to prevent the spread of disease or prevent pregnancy. In 2000 13.6 percent of the population had acquired aids, and since then it has dropped by half with efforts to educate those with aids about the spread of the disease as well as educating children as increased. Each year since 2001 The governing bodies in Kenya have made drastic efforts to increase not only awareness of aids, but condom use and production as well (the geographic journal). Healthcare, in Kenya was free for many years after its independence, structuring free health care for everyone in its constitution. This was implanted with hopes that the free healthcare would in turn lead the economy towards great success if everyone was happy and healthy. However, over the years and with economic downturns the restructuring has left many people without the benefit of healthcare. Its said that in the U.S. their are 26 doctors to everyone 10,000 people, well in Kenya there is one doctor to every 10,000. With a struggling economy those fortunate enough to get educated and become doctors, 51% of them leave the country to seek a better life for them and their family leaving the country to deal with their lack of healthcare providers. The shortage of Doctors in Kenya have given the government problems with sustaining the health of its citizens as well as with the education and prevention of the widespread disease AIDS.

Everyone longs to live happy, full, rich lives. However, the indigenous tribes of Kenya struggle to do much of anything as the globalized markets have taken away most of their land and left them stripped with very little to survive. Their language and culture are threatened as modern globalization and tourism plays a major role in redeveloping the urban areas of Kenya. As money is scarce and many natives are being uprooted and moving to urban areas, they are being forced to work in sectors of markets they would never have worked. They are being forced to learn new languages to assimilate and fit in. As English and other languages continue to spread to remote parts of the world, the indigenous in Kenya, if they want to survive are almost forced to give up what they know, their culture, and change to accommodate the globalization that is taking place. Many businesses in this day and age of capitalism are seeking new markets, and new products so they have forced their way into the markets of the Africans, providing jobs (maybe), but forcing them to change and grow into the new modern cultures that are being created in the urban setting. (capitalism in Africa, science direct).

As poverty has cursed most of Kenya, the people riot for food and humanity mostly. As their agriculture cant sustain enough food for its people, the people in turn resist the government and protest for their lives (essentially). Many of the natives to Kenya are protesting oppression as they refuse to be displaced from their land for environmental destruction. Many people choose to not side with the modern political movements so they resist conforming to the modern ways of which globalization has affected their cultures. Since the early 1990's people have taken to the streets to protest the hardships which have been caused mostly by political corruption, or by globalization. To this day people protest for Humane and civil rights, to expand the constitution to implement proper law to serve all of its people, not just those with capital. (Ray Bush, Journal of Agrarian Change).

In determining whether or not globalization has helped or hindered Kenya, i think its in plain sight that we see that the inequality and economic development which hurts their culture. Many people are forced out of their "homes" for agriculture use, or deforestation, or because their isn't food or potable water nearby. We see that healthcare isn't sustaining the needs of the people, as many doctors leave their culture in search of a better life, where food and money may be in abundance. We see that people are forced to riot for food and against oppression as well as saving the identity of their culture. With labor markets not possessing enough jobs for people, this allows for us all to see that Kenya cant provide for its people the simple necessities of life. With many people being forced to learn other languages and/or cultures, it doesn't readily help the natives adapt, it helps the big business adapt as they use the people to redeem a profit. You would think with the severity of AIDS, and the high death rates, that politicians would do anything to sever the relationship with AIDS and their people, to help bring the country back to a a prosperous land, and allow it to be a place that welcomes any and all cultures, but doesn't force one onto the other, forcing people to leave their identity for another one on the behalf of globalization.

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Eisenhower A Politician And General History Essay

 

The United States along with Britain, Canada, and other Allied countries had begun on their mission to defeat Germany in Europe. To do this, they had to first start in France which had been under German control since June 22, 1940. The Beaches of Normandy were the perfect gateway into the German frontier and were a vital location to be captured. As commander of the Allied forces in Operation Overlord, Dwight D. Eisenhower was the most significant member in his ability to foster cooperation through outstanding leadership qualities. Eisenhower, with a variety of techniques and skills, earned himself this title through what he was able to accomplish both politically and militarily. Without what Eisenhower brought to the table due to his political and military backgrounds, the largest sea to land invasion to this day would not have ran as smoothly as it did.

Eisenhower first began his tremendous military career graduating 61st out of a class of 164 from West Point. After graduating in September of 1915, he was commissioned a Second Lieutenant of Infantry and reported to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. Eisenhower served with the Infantry until February 1918. He then served with the Tank Corps until January 1922. He was promoted to First Lieutenant on July 1, 1916, Captain on May 15, 1917, Major (temporarily) on June 17, 1918 and to Lieutenant Colonel (temporarily) on October 14, 1918. On June 30, 1920, he was reverted to permanent rank of Captain and on July 2, 1920 was promoted to Major. In January 1922, Eisenhower was assigned as executive officer to Brigadier General Fox Conner in the Panama Canal Zone. Conner was an expert on military history and they spent hours talking about military and international problems. Eisenhower said, “Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew.” Connor arranged for Eisenhower to attend the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He then graduated in 1926 as the top student in a class of almost 250. Eisenhower then went on to be the top of his class at the Army War College. He continued to excel in staff assignments serving under both General Douglas MacArthur and General Walter Krueger. After Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941, General George C. Marshall called Eisenhower to Washington for an assignment as head of the War Plans Division. (Dwight David Eisenhower)

Now the time had come to prepare for the greatest land and sea invasion the world has ever seen. Dwight Eisenhower was put in as Commander of the European theater and it was his job to plan and execute the operation. Eisenhower knew the task to invade Hitler’s “Fortress Europe” was going to be a difficult and bloody one. The ports of Le Havre and Cherbourg were massively fortified and therefore would not be good landing spots. This caused Eisenhower to select five landing sites on 21 miles of sandy beaches. The American beaches included Utah and Omaha on the west and the British and Canadian beaches Gold, Sword, and Juno to the east. Prior to the actual invasion Eisenhower had the Allied planes photograph enemy defenses, drop supplies to the resistance, bomb railways, attack Germany's industries and isolate the battlefield. The Allied Navel forces were ordered to escort convoys, patrol and protect the English Channel, scout out beaches and beach defenses, and conducted numerous amphibious rehearsals. Meanwhile, the three airborne and six infantry divisions from the United States, Britain and Canada trained and rehearsed their roles in operation. (Normandy)

Politically, Eisenhower was faced with a very difficult task. He was forced to be in charge of the complete cooperation between the forces of three Allied countries. The Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), was formed so that it was the only organization that gave orders to Eisenhower; it was the nearest thing possible to having only one government in which to answer. The objective of Eisenhower’s headquarters was to build a structure of command and staff that emphasized Allied unity and the cooperation of the several national armed forces that would fight the battles. Eisenhower therefore selected men he knew from his previous staffs and blended British and American officers into a single organization. The primary objective of the SHAEF staff, Eisenhower said was to, "utilize the resources of two great nations . . . with the decisiveness of a single authority." This was not an easy task for him; it forced him to create a technical and emotional atmosphere necessary for the Allied command to function properly. He began to face more problems when Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory argued that poor landing zones and German resistance would result in the "futile slaughter" of two fine airborne divisions. Eisenhower strongly insisted that the landings could not proceed otherwise and overrode his air commander's objections.

In the end, Eisenhower proved to be correct in this issue; his determination to prevail in the debates reinforced his authority as Supreme Commander. (Dwight David Eisenhower)

Now the time had come for Operation Overlord to take place. Originally, Eisenhower decided that June 5th would be D day, but poor weather conditions the day before forced him to postpone the invasion until the 6th. Some ships had already left port and had to be recalled. The elements were crucial in planning the attack. Another delay would have meant putting the whole operation off until at least the 19th, the next date when the moon and tides would be optimal for an attack. Once the pieces of the Operation Overlord had been set in motion, there was nothing more the Supreme Commander could do to affect the results. He placed the issue in the hands of the few thousand brave men at the five beaches of Gold, Sword, Juno, Omaha, and Utah. (Roberts)

Before the amphibious invasion began Eisenhower organized a series of airborne operations. In the west, planes dropped several hundreds of American parachutists belonging to the 101st and 82nd airborne divisions to control the surrounding roads. This was done in order to slow down the German counter-attacks following the landing. In the East, the 6th British airborne division was charged to carry out the same work. Bridges in the east of the invasion area were crucial objectives that the parachutists had to capture. Of the 18.000 parachutists, about a half was killed. Germans became more and more disorientated and the communications to their front did not pass efficiently any more. The landing could now finally begin. (D-Day Normandy)

Though badly scattered and lacking much of their equipment, the brave paratroopers kept the Germans occupied and helped ensure that the "Utah" Beach assault went relatively easily. The British and Canadian attacks, assisted by an air-dropped division on their eastern flank and a longer naval bombardment, also went well. In the "Omaha" area, deep beaches backed by steep hills meant that the U.S. troops landing there were exposed to heavy fire from enemy small arms, machine guns and artillery. Casualties were very great and the assault only succeeded after a day of brutal fighting, with warships coming in close to provide direct gunfire in support of the hard-pressed soldiers. The casualities for the Allied troops on D-day were 53,700 dead, 18,000 missing, 155,000 wounded. For the German troops it was 200,000 dead, wounded and missing as well as 200,000 captured. The Allies won the battle, liberating France and Western Europe from the German Army. (D-Day)

Through D-Day, Eisenhower's most marked characteristics were his unfailing optimism about the success of the invasion and his determination to overcome all obstacles that stood in its way. As more operations during the war developed across northern Europe, Eisenhower demonstrated an exceptional mental flexibility that allowed him to exploit German weaknesses. Since the earlier days with Fox Conner, Eisenhower hated poor planning and considered it potentially dangerous. From August of 1944 through the end of the war, he made a series of important decisions that changed the course of the war. (D-Day)

With Europe in the early stages of reconstruction, Eisenhower returned to the United States in November 1945 to replace his mentor as Chief of Staff of the United States Army. George C. Marshall had overseen the building of the largest Army in the nation's history; Eisenhower presided over the postwar demobilization of that Army. He found himself testifying before Congress to oppose cuts in the military that would hinder the ability to defend American interests in the postwar world. With the passage of the National Security Act of 1947, Eisenhower became the Army's first Chief of Staff to participate in the newly created unified Joint Chiefs of Staff. In 1948 he retired from the Army to become president of Columbia University. (Dwight D. Eisenhower)

In December 1950, at the request of the European allies, President Harry Truman recalled Eisenhower to become the Supreme Allied Commander, where he directed the buildup of military forces for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In dealing with the creation of a defense against the threat of Communism, Eisenhower and his Allied staff worked within the constraints of a Europe that was recovering from the damages of World War II and still stood on the edge of economic collapse. His most enduring contribution was developing a sense of partnership and self-confidence among the NATO member nations. Europeans found that they could trust a man who shared their desire for peace. Eisenhower believed that his NATO command was unique. It was the first time, as he later commented, that a multinational army was created "to preserve the peace and not to wage war." (Ike's D-Day)

In 1952 he accepted the Republican Party's nomination for President of the United States and defeated Democrat Adlai E. Stevenson in the November elections. The quality of leadership that distinguished Eisenhower the soldier also served him well in the presidency. The diverse challenges of more than thirty years of service in the Army and as an international leader increased his natural gift for command. He had the considerable advantage that many of the leaders of the postwar world were old friends whom he had come to know well during the war, and with whom he already had a sound working relationship. Eisenhower's military experience also proved invaluable in determining his style of Presidential leadership. Based on techniques that had served him well in SHAEF and NATO, he used a chief of staff to keep track of the day-to-day operations, freeing him to keep a close eye on all of the administration's business. The new President's major concern was the continued quest for international peace that had been his focus in his years with NATO. (Normandy)

Through all of his accomplishments Dwight D. Eisenhower had proven himself as one of the best politician-generals the United States of American had ever seen. His brilliant tactics became a significant reason the Allies were able to win World War II. Without Eisenhower’s decisive plans conquering Hitler’s “Fortress Europe” would have been nearly impossible given all he did. The central fact about Dwight David Eisenhower is that he accepted the responsibility for making important decisions at critical points in the history of his nation and the world. The most dramatic of those decisions, and the ones for which he had consciously prepared himself throughout a long military career, produced the Allied victory in Europe in 1945. He dedicated himself to the cause of peace during his eight years in the White House. He won the trust and confidence of the common man, both in the United States and the world. To Eisenhower, as a soldier and as a statesman, duty came first. This is best shown in his speech in June of 1945 after being awarded the Freedom of the City of London. "Humility must always be the portion of any man who receives acclaim earned in the blood of his followers and the sacrifices of his friends." (Ike's D-Day)

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Early Law During The Salem Witch Trials History Essay

 

“Hearsay, gossip, stories, unsupported assertions, surmises”, spectral evidence, the witch’s touch, and the witches mark. What about the first, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth, ninth, or fourteenth Amendment protections? Not in the early days of the United States. Let us look at an example of early law: The Salem Witch Trials. The Salem Witch Trials have a more profound explanation than what most people know, and before we take a look at the trials that occurred during the springtime of 1692 (Puritans, 2008).

We will start in the earlier days of what is known as the Puritan movement in England. The Puritan movement began around the late 1500’s and early 1600’s. Puritans religious beliefs centered on the word of G-D: The Bible. The difference though, centered on the beliefs and ideologies, and the way that the Puritans interpreted the Bible, to Puritans the Bible was the law. They took a very literal, word for word translation of what they thought the Law should be (Puritans, 2008).

Many of the laws that the early settlers of the States interpreted, came from Mosaic Law. In the textbook, American Legal History: Cases and Materials (2005) we get many examples of the Puritans incorporation of the Mosaic Law into their own statutes. Many of those laws can be seen in, “The Laws and Liberties of Massachusetts” manuscript. As can be noted in the “Capital Law” section of the manuscript, many if not most of the punishments lead to death. Among those capital laws, as the second forbidden law, was, “If any man or woman be a witch, that is, hath or consulteth with a familiar spirit, they shall be put to death” (Hall, Paul, & Ely, 2005). They included the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy as their source and reasoning. How did the Puritans end up in what they considered the New World?

Around the year 1520 English Protestant leaders began to demand that change happen within the England church; this was the start of the Puritan movement. Their demands were that the church and government be conducted according to the Bible. Among their demands were that the church be run by counsels and not through the hierarchy the Church of England had imposed. Moreover, the Puritans sought out a larger emphasis on prayer, bible reading, and sermons to take place during services. They also wanted prayers to be more personal and have more spiritual devotion to G-D, in contrast to the prescribed prayer that the England churches had adopted (Puritans, 2008).

By the year 1642 the Puritans gained much power in the Parliament and a civil war broke out, known as the “Puritan Revolution”. By 1649, under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, the Puritans seized control of the government. During their reign the Puritans passed many unpopular statutes in England. Even though witch hunting and trials were practiced prior to the Puritan reign (Puritans, 2008). It was during their reign that the majority of witch trials and actual deaths occurred.

Between the years of 1649 to 1658,the time of the Puritans’ reign, the new Puritan government purportedly executed around 4000 witches (Carlson, 2000). Cromwell died in 1658, and by 1960 the Puritan reign ended. Many of the Puritans were not happy with the minimalistic changes taking place within the Church of England. They eventually left England for what we now know as the U.S.A. Many of those settlements happened in Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. Among the settled colonies was Salem, Massachusetts (Puritans, 2008).

With the strong Puritan belief as G-D being the center of everything they did, and trying to live to the strict morals of the bible. It worked both to their advantage and disadvantage. Their strict and literal interpretation of the bible and its laws were almost impossible to adhere to. Each city’s church and their members were individually responsible for their relationship with G-D; actions were louder than words. Their belief in predestination led the Puritans to always strive to do well. Above all, they believed that the Devil was the root of all evil deeds; and because of that, it was a persistent teaching at sermons. Puritans, therefore, needed to be on constant alert to an act of evil. It led to one of the worst tragedies in the history of the U.S. (Puritans, 2008).

As a preface to the actual trials, Salem at this time, in 1692, was going through an economic struggle. Two of the more prominent families, the Putnam’s and the Porters’, were vying for political, social, and economical power. Salem was divided in two: Salem Village and Salem Town. The two sides were set apart by economy and class. Salem Village was also known as Salem Farms; whose citizens were know as poor farmers making their living from their hard work tending to the harvest. Salem Town, on the other hand, was considered the wealthy side of town. Most people in Salem Town were merchants. Moreover, those from Salem town dictated the prices of the crops that came from Salem Village; and on top of that they imposed taxes on them (Salem Witch Trials: The World Behind the Hysteria, 2010).

The cause to the hysteria of the Salem Witch Trials appears to have started with the division that was happening inside Salem Village itself. Ipswich Road is the road that separated Salem Village from Salem Town. Those from Salem Village, which lived near Ipswich Road and the commerce that Salem Town offered, began to take on mercantile trades. As they began to prosper many of those who lived in the more rural areas believed that the prosperity of those near Ipswich Road came from the worldly influences from Salem Town; and in a village where they lived by a very rigid moral code; where something as small as falling asleep at church was considered a sin; and the sinner therefore must be punished. Such interaction with the town’s people was a threat to the Puritan way (Salem Witch Trials: The World Behind the Hysteria, 2010).

With all the socio-economic problems and division that were plaguing Salem Village at the time things took a turn for the worse in 1688. John Putnam invited Samuel Parris, a somewhat successful merchant and farmer from Barbados, to become the village minister. Mr. Parris was a strong proponent for the strict Puritan way. Moreover, Mr. Parris was in total opposition to witchcraft; and he was in agreement that the prosperity in Salem town was the work of the devil. It did not help that the rhetoric that he preached at his sermons further aliened those within the village. As researcher Kay Kizer said, “it was healthy dose of fear woven throughout the fabric of the literary construction”. Moreover, students were quizzed on the sermons both in their homes and while at school. To further engrave those ideologies within the children’s minds (Kizer, nd).

Of equal importance to this debacle was the fact that children had to live by the same moral code as the adults did. Toys were said to be a way to distract you from the worship of G-D, therefore most households contained no toys; and although children were taught to read, the only type of literature in a Puritan household were bibles and other religious books. The books that were for the children, only focused on the punishment that would come if they were to disobey the law of G-D (Salem Witch Trials: The World Behind the Hysteria, 2010).

With a little background to the Puritan way, along with the political struggles going on at this time in Salem, Massachusetts; I think that we can start to see how this could all have been an elaborate scheme to bring order to a town that had two separate visions for the future of Salem. Interestingly enough, most of the accusers were from the farmland areas of the village (those opposed to the interaction with “worldly” Salem Town). While those accused, happened to reside near Ipswich Road. The following paragraphs will present the facts through the course of this horrific episode of early law.

In the waning months of winter in 1692, Betty Parris, the daughter of new Minister Samuel Parris, came down with an atypical illness. She complained of a fever, had random jactations and very erratic behavior. One explanation of her symptoms was that it could have been related to child abuse, boredom, guilt or a combination thereof. Another diagnosis came from the research of Linda Caporael’s 1976 article in Science, of a disease called, “convulsive ergotism”, “caused by a fungus which invades developing kernels of rye grain, especially under warm and damp conditions such as existed at the time of the previous rye harvest in Salem” (Linder, nd).

The most prominent theory, and the on that was accepted as truth, came from a book recently published by Cotton Mather (Linder, nd). He was a minister in the town of Boston. He and his father Increase Mather were strong proponents to the hunting of witches. His book was titled, Memorable Providences, in which an eerily similar account occurred between three children and a washerwoman; she was accused and punished for supposedly being a witch. Cotton Mather also becomes a very prominent figure in the judges appointed to the witch trials (Salem Witch Trials: The World Behind the Hysteria, 2010).

In all there were seven girls: Ann Putman, Betty Parris, Mercy Lewis, Mary Walcott, Elizabeth Hubbard, Susannah Sheldon and Marry Warren. All of who claimed to have been afflicted by witches. The first to be accused was a salve woman of Minister Parris, known as Tituba. Since Tituba was a stranger amongst those of Salem village, in a place were anyone who was different from them was not to be trusted. She was and obvious scapegoat for the village. Tituba was known for telling stories to the girls about omens, voodoo and witchcraft, it only solidified the villages’ case against her when a fellow village woman suggested that Tituba bake a “counter magic” cake that would supposedly counteract the “witch spell” the girls were experiencing (Linder, nd).

Shockingly, Tituba confessed to being a witch. Some say that it was because she really was. Other documents show that she only confessed because her owner, Mr. Parris beat her into confession and told her that if she were to confess that he would set her free (Salem Witch Trials: The World Behind the Hysteria, 2010). In her confession she named Sarah Good, a beggar and Sara Osborn, an old antagonistic woman who had not attended church service in over a year. Tituba claimed that she and the others would fly around on poles to meet with Satan, and that they had all signed his book to help torment the children. That was all the confession that was needed. It silenced most of those who thought that it was all a hoax, and led Parris and other local ministers on a full on witch-hunt (Linder, nd).

When the three ladies went to trial on March 1, 1692 it became a great deal. Hundreds had shown up. They had to move the trial to a place that would occupy the multitude. Many people started to speak of strange things happening when one of the newly accused witches had stopped for a visit. The girls described attacks by the spirits of the accused and even winched and contorted at the site of those accused of witchcraft. Magistrates Jonathan Corwin and John Hawthorne had already determined in their mind that the woman were guilty. Shortly thereafter the girls and Ann’s mother started to accuse that the ghosts of others were tormenting them. By the time Governor Phips returned, the jails were nearly full of accused witches. The Governor created a court called, “court of oyer and terminer” to deal with the witch trials (Linder, nd).

Five judges were appointed to the trials, three of them being close friend to Cotton Mather. The fourth, a gung-ho witch hunter named William Stoughton. Mather had a great influence in convincing the court that previous confession should be allowed. Along with the admission of “spectral evidence”, moreover, they allowed for the so-called “touch test” (it was assumed that if a witch touched someone they afflicted, they would be healed). They also allowed for the assessment of a defendants body. To see if they could find the “witches mark”, otherwise known as moles. Shortly thereafter the trials commenced (Linder, nd). Due to the immensity of the trials I will only give examples of trials that had a drastic impact on the village; some led to further accusations the people who were considered outsiders. While others lead to doubt amongst the village that perhaps the accusations were concocted and unjust.

One of the first accused of being a witch was Bridget Bishop. A sixty-year-old, woman tavern owner who didn’t like to pay her bills, and was disapproved by her neighbors. She was the type of social outcast that was prime for accusation of witchcraft. After all, villagers were allowed to satisfy their alcoholic indulgences at her tavern, even on a Sabbath, something that was regarded as a sacred to the Puritans. Many villagers came forth with accusations. She was accused off stealing eggs, transforming into a cat, being responsible for bad luck that had fallen upon them. She was even accused of making the side of a building fall off just by looking at it. It didn’t help her cause that other “confessed witches” testified that she indeed was a witch; and on June 10, 1692, she was hanged (Linder, nd).

Not all of those accused of being witches were of bad reputation. Many of those accused had a history of dissension with the Putnam family. Rebecca Nurse, who is said to have been a “respected woman”, was accused and found guilty; but only after Justice Stoughton had the juries re-evaluate their decision of finding her not guilty. Villagers dared not to dissent with those accusing or judging. For fear of being accused of being witches too. Such was the case of John and Elizabeth Proctor. A tavern owner himself, and once again in much quarrel with the Putnam family (Linder, nd).

John Proctor openly protested the accusation of Rebecca Nurse, and made a statement that would eventually seal his fate. After the investigation of Rebecca Nurse he stated, “If they [the afflicted girls] were let alone, so we should all be devils and witches.” He was the first man to be called a Wizard. At his wife’s trial, she was accused first, Mr. Proctor started to defend his wife, the girls immediately started to accuse him of wizardry. Both were imprisoned, and as he was in his cell he managed to write a letter to the Boston clergy, pleading that they take action claiming that, “we are all innocent”. He went on to say that the trials were unfair, and those who confessed only did so after being tortured. Although it raised awareness, it was too late for John Proctor; he was hanged August 19, 1692. His wife though was spared because she was pregnant with a child (Salem Witch Trials: The World Behind the Hysteria, 2010).

Another, Giles Corey suffered perhaps the most gruesome death. Giles Corey refused to go to trial; and as per the law at that time, if you refused a trial, the penalty was, “peine et fort” or, death by pressing. Perhaps the most significant hanging was that of George Burroughs. He was living in Maine at the time. Burroughs had over thirty accusers. He was claimed to have bewitched soldiers in 1688-1689, in a war against the Wabanakis, a tribe from the nearby lands. It was a failed war, and as historian Mary Beth Norton says in her book, In the Devil’s Snare that, “it is a key understanding to the Salem Trials” (as qouted in, Linder, nd).

Among the accusations, he is said to have flown one of his accusers to the top of a mountain and, “promised her all the kingdoms if she would sign his book”, sound familiar? Check Mathew 4:8. The greatest testament to the eventual change in these court cases happened before Burrows was hung. It was said that it was impossible for a witch (or wizard, in this case) to recite the Lords’ prayer, and Burrows recited it perfectly, causing the crowd to become “greatly moved”. Doubts began to blossom. With so many prominent people being accused; John Hale said, " It cannot be imagined that in a place of so much knowledge, so many in so small compass of land should abominably leap into the Devil's lap at once." (as qouted in, Linder, nd).

Soon thereafter, Increase Mather, the father of Cotton Mather enacted what was called, “America’s first tract on evidence”, and another work titled Cases of Conscience were Increase Mather says, “were better that ten suspected witches should escape than one innocent person should be condemned." Although, it is said the his change of heart on witch hunting and hanging came about because he was informed that his wife was next to be accused.

Also works from a highly regarded minster in Boston, Samuel Willard, wrote a work called, Some Miscellany Observations, where he mentions that the devil could form a ghost from the image of the innocent. With that, Governor Phips ordered the court to no longer allow spectral evidence, the witch’s touch test, and that “clear and convincing evidence” was required for those accused of witchery. That is all it took, those that remained to be tried were all acquitted for lack of evidence; and by May of 1693 all those remaining in prison were released. And just like that the hysteria that swept through Salem in 1692 was over (Linder, nd).

In the end over two hundred people were imprisoned. Close to twenty four were hanged, squashed to death, or died while in their prison cells. There was not much remorse amongst those who were involved. Only one Judge fully confessed and apologized. Some jurors came forward and said that they were, “sadly deluded and mistaken”. Minister Parris was replaced, but never apologized. As for William Stoughton? Not only did he not apologize, he went on to say that if he had not been interrupted my Governor Phips- who only placed blame on others while never admitting to any fault of his own- he was about to clear the land of all witches (Linder, nd). Of the seven girls who started this hysteria, only Ann Putnam came forth in a confession. In it she states that she was used as an instrument for accusing innocent people. She goes on to say that, “it was a great delusion of Satan that deceived me in that sad time” (as qouted in, Salem Witch Trials: The World Behind the Hysteria, 2010).

Many times we as individuals state that this country has a long way to go in becoming just. At times it may seem that we as a people in this country see the U.S as having a one step forward and two step backwards approach to the progress and equality of mankind, while that may hold some truth. Lest we desire to be in the times of early law as seen in the Salem Witch Trials. A time in which no Constitution or Bill of rights existed.

A time were no right to a counsel was guaranteed, no right to cross examine a witness, no manner in which to appeal, and the fear that you could be tortured into a confession; all lead to the simple joy that we should have to be able to say, yes we have progressed as a country. Albeit, at a slow and methodical cadence. We are blessed to have the protections that the Constitution affords us, to protect our freedoms and liberties against the full grasp of the government, much as was the intention of those who migrated and framed the Constitution.

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Egypt And The Revolutions In The 19th Century History Essay

Although Egypt was included in many wars and had man revolutions that was made by the Egyptian's civilians Egypt was and stayed a strong country. In the beginning of the 19th century Egypt was an unfamiliar country to Europe for one reason and it is that Egypt is a Muslim country and Europe was a Christian continent.

The First European invasion against Egypt was lead by Napoleon. A French army landed near the western mouth of the Nile River in 1798. The First Egyptian Revolution started lead by the Mamaluks because they wanted France to get out of Egypt. The French army's goal was to stop the trade that was happening between England and India. The French army's goal was not achieved but they were successful to defeat Egypt's Ottoman defenders but then their fleet was sunk by the British. The Napoleon invasion made all Europe interested in invading Egypt. In 1799 the French Revolution started to try to take control of the Levant and failed because of two main reasons. Firstly a very good fighter fought against the French army. Secondly the French army got a plague on their way.

In 1800 there was a treaty called the Areesh treaty and this treaty said that France will leave Egypt for the Ottomans and also France should return under the control of the Ottoman Empire. In 1801 Omar Makram lead the second Egyptian revolution against the French and this revolution's goal was to make France go out of Egypt and this revolution's goal was partially achieved because only part of the French campaign left Egypt.

In 1805 Mohamed Ali came to rule Egypt. Mohamed Ali defeated the rest of the French army in Egypt and he also got rid of the Mamaluks. Mohamed Ali also established Egypt's independence from the Ottoman Empire. Mohamed Ali also defeated Britain's short lived campaign which was lead by Frazer. Mohamed Ali started modernizing Egypt by modernizing Egypt's education by sending Egyptian teachers on educational campaigns to France. Mohamed Ali modernized the trade between Egypt trade and industrialization and economy. He also built the military and the navy. He founded the first book publisher.

In 1825 Egypt became kingdom. In 1831 Mohamed Ali tried to take control of the Levant from the Ottoman. This campaign ended with a treaty which states that if Mohamed Ali left the Ottoman Empire in peace his family would inherit the kingdom of Egypt.

In 1848 Abbas started to rule Egypt. Abbas had a different theory than Mohamed Ali. Abbas thought that if he kept modernizing Egypt, Egypt will be an interest to every country so he started to destroy what Mohamed Ali did. The important thing that Mohamed Ali had done and Abbas continued it was sending educational campaigns to France.

In 1854 Saied started to rule Egypt. Saied's theory was like his grandfather. Abbas tried to redo what Mohamed Ali did. Saied started the Suez Canal project in 1854. The Suez Canal is a very important project and it help in many ways and it also helps many people. Building the Suez Canal needed a lot of money and Egypt did not have enough money to complete the project, so Saied was forced to sign a treaty which stated that France would take all the money from the Suez Canal for 99 years.

There are three important effects made by the Suez Canal. Firstly is because people wanted to live beside the Nile so they could have better crops so he made the Suez Canal so there is more space for people to farm on and this will increase the crops and by increasing the crops there will be more money. Secondly to store the water in the Suez Canal. Thirdly because the Suez Canal would bring a massive amount of money for Egypt because every ship that passes from the Suez Canal pays money and that makes the Suez Canal the main source of money in Egypt now.

Khedive Ismail starts to rule Egypt from 1863. Ismail tried to make Egypt in a higher position between other countries and he also tried to make Cairo like Paris. Egypt at Ismail's time was one of the two countries that were selling cotton. Egypt and USA were the two countries who sold cotton at this time. When both countries were selling cotton at the same time the cotton price was not very expensive. Fortunately USA had a war which made them stop selling cotton. This made the cotton price high. This made more money come to Egypt. Khedive Ismail loaned money from France and Britain so he could achieve his goal which was making Cairo like Paris and he depended on the cotton to pay Paris and Britain the money he loaned. Unfortunately the war that the USA was in ended and they returned to sell cotton and not only that they sold cotton they had but they also sold cotton that they stored during the war. That made the price of the cotton very cheap. After USA returned to sell cotton again and the price of the cotton went down again. Also after Egypt became one of the top 5 countries in the world. Egypt did not have enough money to neither achieve Khedive Ismail's goal or paying the money that Khedive Ismail took from Britain and France.

In 1879 started the Oraby revolution against Khedive Ismail. This revolution was led by Ahmed Oraby. The Oraby revolution succeeded in making Ismail not ruling Egypt anymore. After Khedive Ismail came Khedive Tewfik to rule Egypt. While Khedive Tewfik was ruling Egypt Britain came and invaded Egypt for several years because they wanted their money that Khedive Ismail loaned from them.

Khedive Tewfik dies and he is succeeded by Abbas II. While Abbas II was ruling Egypt Mustafa Kamal found Al lawak paper. In the paper his goal was to try to make Egypt independent from Britain.

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Effect On The British Invasion Bands History Essay

 

Throughout history, there have been a great number of instances where certain aspects of the time period had an effect on art forms of the time. A good example of this is how the decade the 1960’s affected the British Invasion rock and roll groups. There were a great number of historical events that occurred during the 1960’s, both positive and negative. One event that had already been taking place for five years before the decade even began was the Vietnam War, which was a violent conflict that pitted the United States and South Vietnam against the Communists of North Vietnam. The war began due to North Vietnam’s efforts to unite itself with South Vietnam, thus making South Vietnam Communist. The United States did not want Communism to spread in Asia any more than it already had, so eventually the United States entered the war. The war was unsuccessful, however, since the United States troops were not prepared for the Vietnamese climate conditions and the guerrilla warfare tactics of the North Vietnamese.

While these major historical events were going on, rock and roll had just begun to take off. Although rock and roll didn’t truly reach its creative peak until the 1960’s, the genre actually grew and became popular in the 1950’s. Rock and roll in itself has been thought by some to be simply a combination of country music and rhythm and blues. This is not the case, however, as the original ideas of rock and roll were in place for a long time, although it did not become a whole separate genre until the mid 1950’s. Probably the biggest influence on how rock and roll became so popular is Elvis Presley. Following his influence, artists such as Little Richard, Buddy Holly, and Chuck Berry started what was called rock and roll’s golden era. It wasn’t until the mid 1960’s that rock and roll had another wave of change comparable to this one.

The British Invasion was a musical movement, which consisted of English rock and roll bands that found fame in both the United Kingdom and the United States. The British Invasion bands did not receive recognition right away, however. In fact, many bands attempted to copy the American style of rock in the 1950’s, although many had little success. The reason for this is that they were unable to grasp the rock and roll feel for the most part. By 1962, some of Britain’s youth was able to understand the rock genre and a few bands became popular in Liverpool, especially the Beatles. It was the Beatles, in fact, who was the first band to go to the United States and spread their own type of rock overseas. After their example, many bands followed. By 1964, Britain had become the birthplace of such popular bands as The Who, The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds, and others. (Britannica.com – British Invasion) Between 1964 and 1966, the British Invasion bands had successfully brought their brand of music over to the United States and had numerous hits including Downtown by Petula Clark, Do Wah Diddy Diddy by Manfred Mann, Wild Thing by the Troggs, Satisfaction by the Rolling Stones, and many others. (Britannica.com – British Invasion)

Since the 1960’s was a time period in which sex, love, violence, and drugs were running rampant, it is evident that some of these social factors of the time period had an effect on these bands. The Beatles and the Rolling Stones were two of the most popular British Invasion bands in both the United States and The United Kingdom at the time. They are also prime examples of social factors have affected the music of the time period. The Vietnam War, which was directly related to the Hippie Movement, was one factor that had an effect. Mass drug use of the time period was also a factor that had a major influence on the British Invasion bands. Besides all of that, the media also had a tremendous effect on many of the bands.

The Vietnam War was received with mixed feelings in the United States, and many people’s opinions were negative. Although some people were for the Vietnamese struggle, many felt that the United States would not have the ability to win and believed that it was not the United States responsibility to fight for South Vietnam. One group of people in the United States, most generally called “Hippies,” felt that violence in any form should not be present and also advocated environmental issues and love. Hippies also usually dressed in clothing with bright colors with flowers printed on them. They also tended to wear headbands and put flowers in their hair.

The hippie movement had an effect on the music of the time in which many of the British Invasion bands wrote songs that included many of the hippie ideas. For example, in the song, In Another Land by the Rolling Stones, the lyrics read, “In another land where the breeze and the trees and flowers were blue I stood and held your hand. And the grass grew high and the feathers floated by. I stood and held your hand. And nobody else's hand will ever do. Nobody else will do.” (The Rolling Stones Albums) These lyrics show that the Rolling Stones showed feelings for nature and the environment, as well as love, which directly relates to the hippie style.

Besides the musical influence the hippies had on the British Invasion bands, there was also a fashion influence as well. In the most of the bands it was typical for most of the members to have fairly long hair or dress in a hippie manner. An example of this is throughout most of the Beatles career in the 1960’s, they had slightly long hair in the front, which was fairly consistent with the hippie style. Even though they began their career wearing matching suits, they later on wore clothing that sported more of a hippie influence.

Although the hippie movement played a major part in having an effect on the British Invasion bands, another major influence on many of the bands, which was also related to the hippie movement were the use of psychoactive drugs such as LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) and marijuana. LSD is a hallucinogen, which basically means that when taken, it puts the user in an altered state of consciousness. The sensations first occur about forty minutes after the drug is taken. After about an hour, the intensity level of the drug is at its highest and lasts for about four to five hours. People who have experienced LSD have said that during that peak point that their senses became stronger, and also sometimes seemed to mix. Also, while on the drug it appears as if inanimate objects can move and bend. (Psychological effects of LSD) It is also said that LSD can give the user a new dimension of creativity, which resulted in the use of the drug by many rock bands in order to come up with fresh, new ideas. Another psychoactive drug, marijuana is a plant that contains the chemical THC (tetrahydrocannabinol). THC is what gives marijuana its mind-altering control and gives what many people call, a “high”. Most often marijuana is smoked, although it can also be eaten. Marijuana also is said to help people think more creatively.

Perhaps two of the most popular bands who had changed their musical style through the use of psychoactive drugs are the Rolling Stones and the Beatles. The birth of psychedelic rock is what brought about this change in these bands. Psychedelic rock began in the late 1960’s and was the result of LSD use as well as feedback and electronic sounds. The most popular psychedelic rock band was the Grateful Dead, who actively used drugs during their concerts. (Britannica.com – Psychedelic Rock) The Rolling Stones and the Beatles both became influenced by this type of rock, and wrote songs that showed many signs of drug use. Between 1966 and 1967, The Beatles created albums such as Revolver, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and Magical Mystery Tour. These albums all had psychedelic influences in them. For example, in the song Magical Mystery Tour, the lyrics are, “Roll up, roll up for the Mystery Tour. Roll up, and that’s an invitation. Roll up, to make a reservation. Roll up for the Mystery Tour. The Magical Mystery Tour is waiting to take you away, waiting to take you away.” (The Beatles Discography – US Albums) It is evident that based on these lyrics the “magical mystery tour” is a marijuana high because the term “roll up” refers to rolling up a marijuana joint, and the “magical mystery tour” as well as “taking you away” refer to getting high. This is a major difference from the lyrics in earlier songs the Beatles had written.

The Rolling Stones also experimented with psychoactive drugs, which in turn affected their music. The songs in their album, Their Satanic Majesties Request, displayed a psychedelic side. In the song, Two Thousand Light Years From Home, the lyrics read, ”Sun turnin' 'round with graceful motion. We're setting off with soft explosion. Bound for a star with fiery oceans, it's so very lonely, you're a hundred light years from home.” (The Rolling Stones Albums) These lyrics have a very fantasy-like manner to them, in which speaking of “fiery oceans” and “soft explosions” hint that they are the creative result of an LSD trip. Also, saying, “you’re a hundred light years from home” may have a hidden meaning of being high.

Though not directly related to the hippie movement or drugs, the media had an extremely large influence on the British Invasion bands. Television had reached an extremely high popularity by the 1960’s and therefore provided a new way for the bands to gain exposure rather than just live events, or even word from newspapers or magazines. Even though the 1960’s took place well before the MTV era, bands were still seen on television shows such as “The Ed Sullivan Show” and “The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson.” It was on these television appearances that the Beatles performed that truly started the British Invasion. Since the Beatles had instantly gained incredible amounts of popularity in the United States because of these television appearances, many other bands seized the opportunity and presented themselves to the American audience.

Media exposure also had a negative influence on some of these bands, however. For example, in an interview in the London Evening Standard, John Lennon of the Beatles said, “Christianity will go. It will vanish and shrink. I needn't argue with that; I'm right and I will be proved right. We're more popular than Jesus now; I don't know which will go first - rock 'n' roll or Christianity. Jesus was all right but his disciples were thick and ordinary. It's them twisting it that ruins it for me.” (The Dark Side of Beatlemania – John Lennon) At that time it was not considered to be anything negative. Five months later however, Datebook, a United States magazine for teenagers reprinted that quote and featured it in an article titled, “The Ten Adults You Dig/Hate The Most”. Since the quote had been misconstrued by the media, many people in the United States interpreted it as though the Beatles were antichrists. Radio stations stopped playing Beatles’ music on the air and many children around the country publicly destroyed Beatles records, memorabilia, etc. Other bands quickly learned that the media could easily twist and turn what one says, so they would have to be more careful.

In conclusion, based on these main points it is evident that the 1960’s truly did have a huge impact on the British Invasion bands. The marijuana and LSD use by many of the bands gave their music a fresh, new sound that had never been heard before. Also, the hippie influences added a new way for social concerns to be expressed. Finally, the British Invasion bands also learned that the media can portray them in both positive and negative ways, based on how they manipulate words or actions.

After thoroughly researching the 1960’s as well as the bands that made up the British Invasion, I feel that the sixties was one of the most eventful, tragic, interesting, and beautiful time periods in world history. The stories from the two major conflicts going on – The Vietnam War, as well as the struggle back in the United States between the war supporters and those against it are absolutely riveting. I have also found that there are tremendous similarities between the hippies and the authors of the Romantic Era in Britain. Both the hippies and the romantics felt very strongly about nature and expressed their feelings in art forms, the romantics through poetry and the hippies through song. I also have found similarities between psychedelic rock and the works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who wrote works such as Kubla Kahn and The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Because of Coleridge’s use of Opium, his works showed signs of fantasy, very much like the psychedelic style. I feel that not only has the 1960’s had a major effect on the British Invasion bands, but I also feel that the bands themselves have drilled a deep impact into the culture of the 1960’s as well as today.

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Uk Government Reducing Consumption Of Cigarettes Economics Essay

Cigarette consumption remains the main cause of disease and premature death in the UK. According to the Department of Health in UK (2009), in England, over 80,000 deaths per year are due to smoking and about 8.5 million people still smoke in England today. That is why the Government White Paper Choosing Health: Making healthier choices easier, (building on the 1998 White Paper Smoking Kills), promised new action to tackle tobacco (Department of Health, 2009).

1.2 Definition and Theory

Cigarette (tobacco) consumption is currently seen as an externality in economics. According to Auburn (2005), a situation in which the private costs or benefits to the producers or purchasers of good or service differs from the total social costs or benefits entailed in its production and consumption. On the other hand, an externality exists whenever one individual's actions affect the well-being of another individual, whether for the better or for the worse, in ways that need not be paid for according to the existing definition of property rights in the society (Auburn, 2009).

On the contrary, there is a wide variety of moves and policies that government could use to bring about an efficient allocation of resources where externalities exist, to stop or prevent market failure. Governments intervene in the operation of a market based economy for a variety of different reasons.

1.3 Aims

The aims and expectations of this report is to establish broad knowledge in economics such as theory and concept and at the same time, present and explain the arguments and analysis with high standard of English in this Economics and EAP crossover assignment.

Findings

Consumption of cigarettes creates serious health consequences for individuals and overwhelming financial burdens for government around the world especially in UK.

Figure 1

UK cigarette Consumption 1990-2007

UKDP

NUKDP

TOTAL

% NUKDP

billion cigarettes

1990

99.0

3.5

102.5

3%

1991

94.4

3.5

97.9

4%

1992

89.3

3.5

92.8

4%

1993

85.4

3.5

88.9

4%

1994

84.3

4.0

88.3

5%

1995

83.0

5.0

88.0

6%

1996

81.2

6.0

87.2

7%

1997

77.4

6.6

84.0

8%

1998

70.5

13.5

84.0

16%

1999

63.0

21.0

84.0

25%

2000

56.3

25.2

81.5

31%

2001

55.5

23.5

79.0

30%

2002

56.0

20.0

76.0

26%

2003

53.5

20.5

74.0

28%

2004

52.0

20.0

72.0

28%

2005

50.5

19.5

70.0

28%

2006

49.0

18.5

67.5

27%

2007

47.0

17.5

64.5

27%

Source: (TMA, 2008)

This table shows the trends in the UK cigarette market and the split between UK duty paid (UKDP) and non-UK duty paid (NUKDP) consumption (TMA, 2008). The estimate of NUKDP consumption includes cigarettes which are smuggled, counterfeit, cross border shopped and duty-free (TMA, 2008).

2.1 Taxation

On the other hand, the use of taxes is a solution which is much favored by the UK government so as to control the consumption. In taxation, the government will assess the cost to society of a particular negative externality. It then sets tax rates on those externalities such as tobacco consumption equal to the value of the externality.

Figure2 UK Hand rolling Tobacco Consumption

UKDP

NUKDP

TOTAL

% NUKDP

tones

1990

4,170

4,170

0%

1991

4,100

50

4,150

1%

1992

3,790

255

4,045

6%

1993

3,520

680

4,200

16%

1994

3,050

1,350

4,400

31%

1995

2,600

2,500

5,100

49%

1996

2,215

3,885

6,100

64%

1997

1,875

4,925

6,800

72%

1998

1,800

5,600

7,400

76%

1999

2,000

6,500

8,500

76%

2000

2,100

7,325

9,425

78%

2001

2,700

6,800

9,500

72%

2002

2,800

7,500

10,300

73%

2003

2,830

7,870

10,700

74%

2004

2,950

7,950

10,900

73%

2005

3,100

7,800

10,900

72%

2006

3,400

7,500

10,900

69%

2007

3,550

7,450

11,000

68%

Source: (TMA, 2008)

2.2 Health Bill

Moreover, UK government has established Health Bill so as to control the tobacco products’ consumption. The Health Bill 2009 was introduced to Parliament on 15 January. It includes proposals to remove tobacco displays in shops and to restrict the sale of cigarettes from vending machines, which were discussed in the consultation on the future of tobacco control (Department of Health, 2009).

According to the Department of Health (2009), “It is intended that regulations would come into force for larger businesses in 2011 and into force for small shops in 2013”

2.3 Advertising Control

Lastly, the Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act received Royal Assent on 7 November 2002 and came into force on 14 February 2003. The Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act 2002 comprehensively bans the advertising and promotion of tobacco products including the use of brand-sharing and sponsorship of cultural and sport events (Old Ash, 2008).

Thee ban was implemented in stages as follows:

14 February 2003 –   From that date it became illegal to advertise tobacco products on billboards, in newspapers and magazines.  Direct mail was banned in May 2003 (Old Ash, 2008).

21 December 2004 - Regulations governing advertising at the point of sale came into effect. These limit advertising to one A5 sized ad per outlet (Old Ash, 2008).

31 July 2003 – Tobacco sponsorship of domestic sporting events was banned (Old Ash, 2008).

31 July 2005 – The ban on tobacco sponsorship of international events such as Formula One motor racing entered into force.  In addition, regulations on brand-sharing came into effect. (Old Ash, 2008)

Discussion

3.1 Taxation

British government has increased tax on tobacco import and retail outlets rapidly by raising the price and reducing the cigarettes consumption. There is a close connection between the total tax revenue and the total cigarette consumption in the UK. Increasing taxes on tobacco encourages people to give up smoking or dissuades them to start in the first place and raises revenue for the Treasury thus reducing the need for taxes on jobs and investment. High tobacco tax, which is recommended by the World Bank (TMA, 2008), is recognized as a good health and economic policy.

3.2 Health Bill

By “restricting the sale of cigarettes from vending machines will prevent easy access to cigarettes by people underage” (Department of Health, 2009).  According to the Department of Health (2009), vending machines present an easy opportunity for young people to buy cigarettes.  The British Heart Foundation estimates that nearly 46,000 young people purchased cigarettes from vending machines in 2006 (Department of Health, 2009).  Age-restricting vending machines will also help businesses to avoid selling tobacco to people underage for which they could face tough penalties (Department of Health, 2009).

3.3 Advertising Control

Virtually all tobacco advertising is now illegal in the UK and many other countries. In many cases this follows successful public health campaigns to persuade governments of the need for legislation to end the promotion of one of the deadliest consumer products (Old Ash, 2008). However, in many poor countries, tobacco companies continue to market their products using the tactics that have been outlawed in much of the industrialized world.  

Conclusion

To sum up, there are three major ways to reduce cigarette consumption and was adopted by UK government. Firstly, by taxing the importer or retail outlets stores in a higher tax rate, supply of cigarettes tend to be decrease in theory, therefore the price rises up as the cost increases. When consumers are facing price fluctuation, they will be less willing to purchase. Secondly, Health Bills, the Bill prohibits the display of tobacco products at the point of sale and creates powers to control the sale of tobacco from vending machines. Lastly, advertising, despite efforts by governments to restrict or ban tobacco advertising, the tobacco industry continues to spend billions of pounds worldwide promoting its hazardous products. However, with less and less help of advertising and promotion, the effectiveness of promotion will decline.

Recommendation

Tobacco products cause addiction and tons of harmful effects towards smokers which are the consumers. Taxation, health bill and advertising control are three main methods to control the consumption of cigarette. However, it is apparently not effective though. Since cigarette is a special demerit good. It creates negative externalities which lead to a reduction in social economic welfare. The UK government may decide to intervene in the market of tobacco and impose taxes on producers and / or consumers. Higher taxes cause prices to rise but did not lead to a fall in demand. Therefore, regulation and legislation will be the most useful ways.

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