Seismic Design Of Industrial Rack Clad Buildings Engineering Essay

This paper describes the development of over strength factor and ductility for high level storage system called rack clad building (RCB) system. Unlike the steel storage structures which are common in superstores, these structures are built outside and the outer most frame is used for supporting cladding. As these structures have frequent interaction with people, they pose a great threat towards public safety during any windstorm or earthquake event. Several research works have been done on steel storage rack structures but not on RCB systems and currently no seismic design guideline exists for designing RCB structures. The over strength factor is an important parameter required for calculating design seismic force for a type of structure. The RCB structures generally use teardrop connectors at the beam column joint. These connection systems have semi rigid behavior and shows very different hysteresis behavior compared to a conventional joint. For simulating this behavior in finite element model, nonlinear behavior has been introduced using moment rotation data from a previously done laboratory experiment. Using this experimental data a set of three dimensional models have been generated and several nonlinear static analysis have been performed to determine the over strength factor and ductility with varying heights and bay lengths.

Steel storage racks in supermarket, hardware stores and handy man stores have become very common in Canada. These places are visited by people every day. Due to high proximity of these structures to people, these structures pose a great threat towards public safety. During earthquake these structures if not properly designed to withstand the inertia force can collapse and injure people. Until now very little effort has been put into the Seismic design of these structures.

As these structures are an integral part of everydays public activity the importance of a proper design guideline for these structures is very high. As rack structures are generally located inside of a larger structures wind forces were generally ignored and there was reluctance in considering seismic loading also. The National Building Code of Canada (NBCC, 2005) recognizes the seismic risk of rack storage systems and recommends that seismic provisions be provided while designing these types of structures. FEMA 460, 2005 provides seismic guidelines for designing these storage structures. However RCB is a new type of steel storage structure which is generally installed outside of a building and the sides and roof of the structure is used as the wall and roof of the structure. These types of structures are called rack clad building systems. This idea of using the Rack structures peripheral frame as a wall reduces the need for a larger storage structure for the protection of the racks which significantly reduces cost. This type of structure is getting popular because of low cost and rapid rate of construction. Rack clad building has to withstand the full force of earthquake or wind. For these structures wind forces cannot be ignored and they have to be properly designed against lateral forces as they pose higher risk towards public safety compared to conventional steel storage racks. There are some guidelines in practice for designing steel storage rack system but there are no similar standard in place for designing RCB system against seismic and wind loading. This research is very important as it is going to be a great help for structural designers and construction industry of Canada.

As the number of superstore and warehouses getting increased and public access to them also becoming frequent, safety is becoming a major concern. Safety and security of the citizens of a country is very important and this is also the primary objective of this analysis. The objective of the proposed RCB system analysis is to develop a standard design guideline for the structural design practitioners, contractors and the construction industry. To develop mathematical model several finite element models have been developed. From the finite element model the over strength, force reduction factor, natural time period and ductility have been calculated which are some very important parameters of seismic design. These parameters will be used for calculating seismic base shear for future RCB frame designs and also help in member size proportioning. The expected design performance level of this structure will be used as collapse prevention against maximum considered earthquake.

As the RCB frame comes with elements containing holes at regular interval, the frame elements lose stiffness. So the stiffness of the frame elements have been reduced in the model to take account of the preinstalled holes in the frames. A simple model of a frame element has been generated in FEM software using shell elements to calculate the stiffness with holes and without holes and thus the relative stiffness have been calculated. Using the relative stiffness, several RCB frame models have been produced using line elements and analyzed using computer simulation. The analysis has been carried out using nonlinear static procedure. The results produced from the FEM model was checked against existing test results from the published literature. The beam column joint behavior strength was simulated using the FEM model and checked against the previous experimental values from literature. A hysteresis load deflection relationship curve was produced for result verification and further studies.

This research was carried out to produce a design guideline which is going to enable the design practitioners design the RCB frames based on a solid ground. The standard design methodology for RCB system will enable the designers to achieve life safety performance level against design basis earthquake with minimum time and cost implication. With desired level of performance level these structures will be safer in public interaction during any severe wind load or seismic event. Also by achieving the desired level of performance we will be able to reduce the risk of overdesign and as well as cost.

The first step of the guideline is to calculate over strength and ductility of RCB systems. The second step is the calculation of the natural time period and force reduction factor. The following figure shows these factors and how their relationships.

: Over strength, force reduction factor and ductility

Generally racking systems consists cold-rolled steel sections. The frame system consists of upright posts with holes at regular interval for connecting beams on one side and braces on the other side. They rely on portal frame action in the down-aisle direction and frame action in the cross-aisle direction to resist lateral loads. The story height can vary depending on the stock required to be stored [7]. The RCB structure under consideration has a story height of 1600mm. A typical arrangement of a racking system is given in the following figure.

Beam

Diagonal

Pallet support bar

Guard Corner

Frame

Drum Chock

Plywood clipboard

Galvanized steel shelf panel

Base plate

: Basic components

The frame system used in the down-aisle direction of steel storage racks which uses teardrop beam to upright connection, although appear similar to steel moment-resisting frames defined in the 2003 NEHRP commended Provisions FEMA 2004, behave very differently than the connection system commonly used in buildings. Generally moment resisting connections in buildings are designed to cause inelastic deformations in the beams away from the beam column joint, but this inelastic behavior occurs directly in the beam-to-column connections in RCB structures. [6]

In rack industry, the columns are called uprights. Although the system exhibits highly nonlinear behavior up to very large relative rotations between the beams and column, it remains almost elastic in the sense that the behavior does not cause permanent deformation in the beams and uprights joint. The inelastic rotation capacity of beam-to-upright connections is significantly high and for the connection under consideration has exceeded 0.06 radians and some researcher [6] found out that it can be as high as 0.2 radians. In general building moment-resisting connections have inelastic rotation capacity in the range of 0.04 radians for special moment-frame systems. However, the rotational demands on rack moment resisting connections are much greater than that that of buildings because of the relatively short height of rack structures for comparable fundamental time periods. Therefore, the high rotational capacity of beam-to upright moment-resisting connections is necessary in order for the structure to withstand strong earthquake ground motions. [6]

The performance expectations and design intentions of the 2003 NEHRP Recommended Provisions: “The design earthquake ground motions specified herein could result in both structural and nonstructural damage. For most structures designed and constructed to these provisions and constructed according to these provisions, structural damage from design earthquake ground motion will be repairable although perhaps not economically so. The actual ability to accomplish these goals depends upon a number of factors including the structural framing type configuration, materials, and as-build details of construction for ground motions larger than the design levels; the intent of these Provisions is that there is a low likelihood of structural collapse.” [6]

The performance expectations can be stated for the structural design of steel storage racks as follows; the rack structures have a low probability of collapse when subjected to the Maximum Considered Earthquake or MCE ground motions. Storage racks are currently designed using equivalent lateral force procedures that use reduced Design Basis Earthquake DBE ground motions. Collapse prevention at the MCE ground motions is taken to be 1.5 times larger than the DBE ground motions, is not completely based on solid mathematical ground and only based on past experience. As the inelastic behaviors of rack structural members and connections are significantly different from building structural systems, it would be desirable that in addition to the equivalent DBE lateral force design, a check of collapse prevention at the MCE be explicitly made [6].

In the following figure a side view of a RCB structure is shown which shows the use of braces in the down isle direction

: Side view of a RCB with braces

In the subsequent figures some important components of RCB are shown

: Spacer beams connecting two racks

: Typical upright post detail

: Typical upright post to beam connection [4]

The posts are made of 1.8mm, 2mm, 2.6mm and 3mm thick steel. The shape of the section is shown the figure above. Beams are generally rectangular box section with thickness varying from 1.5mm and 1.8mm. The beam depth ranges from 72mm to 150mm. The width is generally 50 mm.

Braces are made of ‘C’ sections with typically two types of sections 45mmX30mmX2mm and 60mmX30mmX4mm. These braces are generally connected with the upright with a single nut and a bolt.

For computer modeling of the actual beam column joints moment rotation data were used from [1]. The moment rotation behavior of beam column connection is shown below.

: Double cantilever test setup

The experimental moment rotation plots for different combinations are shown below. From these moment rotation graphs the one suitable for the project under consideration was selected,

: Moment rotation plots for varying column thickness and beam depths for a 4 lipped connector

which is the curve corresponding to 2.5UT-4L-100BD. An idealized curve was plotted with secant stiffness and strain hardening slope. The idealized curve is shown below.

: Experimental and Idealized moment rotation curve

Several analytical models are generated in finite element modeling software to calculate section properties and to simulate the beam-to-upright joint nonlinear moment rotation behavior.

This calculation was carried out to eliminate the need for modeling the post section with holes for the full structural model. Modeling with holes requires shell element based modeling for the column section, which is time consuming and impractical from analysis point of view. The approximate section properties of the post section were calculated partially using computer model and hand calculation. And a relationship has been developed between the section with and without hole. . The calculated properties are moment of inertia, shear area, average cross sectional area and torsional constant. Below is a FE post model with holes

: A cross section and a finite element model of an upright with hole

Some calculated section property is shown in the table below

Moment of Inertia about 2 axis

90.35%

Moment of Inertia about 3 axis

86.11%

Average cross sectional area

95.60%

Torsional Constant

98.16%

Shear area in 2 direction

84.39%

Shear area in 3 direction

89.22%

: Relative stiffness with respect to section without holes

In order to take account of the non linear moment rotation behavior into account, a non linear hinge has been modeled in the FE software. The hinge model was tested using a beam column joint. The hinge was inserted at the end of the beam and a non linear static load was monotonically applied until the hinge reached its ultimate capacity. The output from the finite element model is shown below.

: Beam column joint model

: Simulated moment rotation behaviour in the model

The frames were created using FEM software fully capable of dealing with nonlinear material property and geometrical nonlinearity. The beam column joint rotation property is simulated using nonlinear plastic hinges and they were assigned at the beam column joint. The steel plastic hinge behavior is used in the critical length of columns to form plastic hinges after yield moment is reached. Axial nonlinearity (Axial P hinge) is used for braces so that they take considerably lower load in compression. This nonlinear object can automatically calculate the buckling load and can make the braces ineffective after the buckling load has reached. The pushover analysis that is used here is nonlinear static in nature. The load is applied in a specified direction using a accelaration in that direction and subsequent roof top displacement and base shear is monitored until the structure reaches its ultimate capacity. With the monitored data the following curves are generated. Some pushover curves were genereated with self weight only others are with self weight plus content weight. Content weight is 2000Kg per tray which equates to 4.35KN/m for the beams.

Fig 13: Two dimensional analysis model for down isle direction

Fig 14: Two dimensional analysis model for cross isle direction

Fig 15: Three dimensional analysis model of a single rack in down isle direction (without braces)

Fig 16: Three dimensional braced model with 2X4 bays

Single frame pushover analysis in downisle and cross isle direction. For these analysis the content weight was assumed zero.

Fig 17: Pushover curve for down isle direction (self weight only)

The calculated overstrength factor for the above mentioned frame is 2.5 and ductility is 2.9

Fig 18: Pushover curve for down isle direction (1/3rd content weight)

The calculated overstrength factor for the above mentioned frame is 2.0 and ductility is 2.6

Fig 19: Pushover curve for down isle direction (2/3rd content weight)

The calculated overstrength factor for the above mentioned frame is 4.4 and ductility is 2.8

Fig 20: Pushover curve for down isle direction (full content weight)

The overstrength factor could not be calculated as the beam to upright connections got completely plastisized due to content load alone but the ductility facctor was calculatead to be 2.5

Fig 21: Pushover curve for cross isle direction (Self weight only)

Overstrength factor and ductility for the above mentioned frame is 1.48 and 1 respectively.

Fig 22: Pushover curve of a single rack in down isle direction (Self weight only)

Overstrength factor and ductility for the above mentioned frame is 1.3 and 1.9 respectively.

Fig 24: Pushover curve of a 2X4 unbraced 3d model in down isle direction (Self weight )

Overstrength factor and ductility in cross isle direction for the above mentioned frame is 2.5 and 1.45 respectively.

Fig 25: Pushover curve of a 2X4 fully braced 3d model in down isle direction (Self weight )

Overstrength factor and ductility for the above mentioned frame is 1.9 and 1.0 respectively.

Fig 24: Pushover curve of a 2X4 fully braced 3d model in cross isle direction (Self weight )

Overstrength factor and ductility for the above mentioned frame is 1.3 and 1.33 respectively.

Down isle

2D unbraced

Self weight (SW)

2.5

2.9

Down isle

2D unbraced

SW+1/3rd content

2

2.6

Down isle

2D unbraced

SW+2/3rd content

4.4

2.8

Down isle

2D unbraced

SW+full content

Indeterminate

2.5

Down isle

2D unbraced

SW

1.3

1.9

Cross isle

2D unbraced

SW

1.48

1

Table 3: Overstrength and ductiliity for various types of configuration

From the above mentioned study done for RCB frames it is found out that the overstrength factor is a function of the content weight in the down isle direction and it varies from 1.3 to 4.4, on the other hand the ductility has a range from 1 to 2.9. For full content weight all the beam column joint became plastisized only due to gravity load and hence the overstrength factor could not be calculated. So it is highly recommended that the racks should not be loaded to their full capacity in any situation.

For cross isle direction the frame behaviour is totally governed by the performance of the braces. The buckling failure of the braces are the critical events during a pushover analysis. It was observed that the ductility is only on in this direction which implies that the frame is almost elastic in the cross isle direction upto failure. And the calculated overstrength is 1.48 in cross isle direction.

The most important parameter is the overstrength factor of the fully braced 3d model. It was found out that the overstrength factor in the cross isle direction is 1.3 and ductility is 1.33 and in down isle direction they are 1.9 and 1.0 respectively. The ductility 1.0 in the down isle direction very different from the single frame ductility which was 2.9. It is because the braces are present in the full 3D model. Which induces a fully linear base shear vs roof displacement response to the structure. Due to the braces the structure is unable to freely move laterally and the displacement we get is actually the axial elongation of the braces. On the other hand the same structure without braces shows 23 times more dformation in the down isle direction.

A full scale model will be generated for a RCB system and Incremental dynamic analysis will be carried out to calculate the force reduction factor. For these studies some ground motion data will be selected to best represent the seismicity of this region. For this further study the following nonlinear behavior is simulated in the model to take account of the pinched hysteresis with very low residual deformation observed during the experiment.

As the nonlinear hinge modeled in the FE software cannot take reverse cyclic loading, a Multi linear plastic link model was generated using elastic-plastic property and pivot hysteresis [3] behavior. The pivot hysteresis behavior best represents the moment rotation behavior of the RCB frames beam column joint which is semi rigid in nature. This model is able simulate hysteresis which has very low residual deformation which makes it unique among other hysteresis methods available. This plastic link will be used for incremental dynamic analysis in further studies.

Fig 20: Pivot hysteresis of RCB beam column joint

Fig 21: Simulated hysteresis comparison with experimental plot (Black line represents simulated reults)

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Study Of Developments Of Green Ship Design Engineering Essay

Shipping is the primary means of transport worldwide. We, in Europe, rely on it for goods and travelling from one corner of our continent to the other. Today’s globalised world trade would not be able to function without ships, after all approxi- mately 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water. Considering the staggering percentages of world trade vessels transport (80%), it is remarkable to note that shipping is already the most environmentally friendly mode of transport and that emissions emitted from ships are small (3%). Operational pollution has been reduced to a negligible amount. MARPOL 73/78 is the most important set of international rules dealing with the environment and the mitigation of ships pollution, it has dealt with certain issues. However, there have also been consider- able improvements in the effi ciency of engines, ship hull designs, propulsion, leading to a decrease of emissions and increase of fuel effi ciency. The environmental footprint of shipping has been signifi - cantly improved through inputs from the marine equipment industry, which adopts a holistic approach when looking at the maritime sector. The equipment suppliers are a valued contributor and innovator within the maritime cluster. The shipbuilding sector encompasses the shipyards and the marine equipment manufacturers including service and knowledge providers. The European marine equipment industry is the global leader in propulsion, cargo handling, communication, automation and environmental systems.

The marine equipment sector comprises of all products and services necessary for the operation, building, con- version and maintenance of ships (seagoing and inland waterways). This includes technical services in the fi eld of engineering, installation and commissioning, and lifecycle management of ships. The value of the products, services and systems on board a vessel can exceed 70% (85% for cruise ships) of the value of a ship. The production ranges from fabrication of steel and other basic materials to the development and supply of engines and propulsion systems, cargo handling systems, gen- eral machinery and associated equipment, environmental and safety systems, electronic equipment incorporating sophisticated control systems, advanced telecommuni- cations equipment and IT. Thus the marine equipment industry supports the whole marine value chain and stake- holders: from the port infrastructure and operation to the ship/shore interface, shipbuilding and ship maintenance.

A large part of the improvements in the environmental footprint of shipping is achieved through the efforts of the European marine equipment industry. A major challenge for the industry today is to ‘transfer technology’ from laboratories to ships, in order to reduce harmful emissions and obtain the benefi t to wider soci- ety. Investments in upgrading older ships are necessary to make them ‘greener’ and more effi cient also in view of setting a benchmark for future new-buildings. A short term objective for the marine equipment sector is to be able to improve energy effi ciency of ships by around 30%. In the medium to long term it has been estimated that a ship’s energy effi ciency can be improved by 60%. These ambitious targets can, however, only be achieved by a continuous innovation process and through increased co- operation between the actors within the maritime cluster.

Shipping has proved to be an effi cient mode of transport throughout history: cutting journey times, building larger vessels to carry more goods, and moving to the combustion engine from the age of steam. Ship-owners, in particular European ones, in cooperation with European shipbuilders (yards and marine equipment) have opted for effi cient and high tech products; this is why the European marine equipment sector is now globally one of the most advanced and innovative, although much more can be achieved. There is already technology existing to help mitigate the environmental impacts from ships. The equipment manufacturers have to maintain levels of investment for new tech- nologies, especially in the present economic climate. Future regulation for the ‘greening’ of shipping is likely to be adopted at inter- national level in the very near future. This could provide a benchmark for further innovation and ensures a high level of technical design resulting in better prod- ucts.

The aim of this book is to provide the reader with a look at currently existing green technology and the impact it has on the environment from a neutral stand- point. Further developed it could provide a benchmark for the current capabilities of technology and if integrated onboard vessels show what they could achieve above and beyond current regulatory requirements. If this technology could be integrated in today’s ships then they could become 15-20% greener and cleaner. If there is further demonstration of newly researched and developed technology then a 33%+ eco-friendliness could be achieved ultimately leading to the zero emissions ship in the not too distant future.

There are 7 issues that should be taken into consideration when talking about re- ducing the environmental impact of vessels1:

“Green ship” is a name given to any sea going vessel that contributes towards improving the present environmental condition in some way or the other. The word “green” in “Green Ship” signifies the green cover of the earth, which is unfortunately reducing as a result of the increase of human intervention in environmental activities.

Maritime industry is one of the greatest contributors of the green house effect, a phenomenon that has drastically affected the earth’s natural ecosystem. Thus, as an effort to reduce carbon emissions coming from the maritime industry and also to support the world movement towards eradicating the green house effect, many shipyards around the world have started inculcating special methods and equipments in their ships, which not only helps in minimizing the carbon foot prints but also in increasing the ships efficiency. These environmentally- friendly ships are known as “Green Ships.”

The greatest contributor of environmental pollution on a ship is the ship’s engine room. The diesel engines and other machinery present in the engine room utilize fuel for their working and release carbon dioxide and other poisonous gases in return. The key to reduce this poisonous emission is to improve the design of these machines and also of the ship. The ships should be designed in such a way that it poses least threat to the environment. Thus, better the design, greener is the ship.

A greener and efficiently designed ship can be achieved by

Minimizing the consumption of materials during ship building.

Reducing the usage of energy and toxic materials during ship manufacturing process.

Using efficient machinery

Improving the overall ship design

Reusing of ship’s parts and accessories during ship maintenance.

Hull design and the kind of materials used in making a ship play a very important role towards the overall efficiency of the ship. For e.g., optimization of hull lines of the ship increases the speed of the ship, saves fuel and also improves the economic efficiency.

Green ship technology means using methods that reduce emission and energy consumption during ship construction processes such as hull construction, painting and fitting. Moreover, a green ship should also abide by all the rules and regulations related to environmental protection and conservation. Thus, if it’s a green ship then special attention is provided during its manufacturing and service processes.

As mentioned earlier, improving the marine machinery is yet another method for making a ship green. The marine equipments chosen for a green ship should consume less energy, emit less pollution and have higher efficiency. This can be done by concentrating on technical aspects of machines such as boilers, main engine, generators, air conditioning system, air compressors etc.

A green ship also means using new technologies such as advanced hull and propeller systems, exhaust gas scrubber systems, waste recovery system, exhaust gas recirculation system etc. Apart from this, use of right grade of fuel for a particular engine also reduces carbon emission and fuel consumption. This also results in less routine maintenance, demanding reduced human labor and energy.

Moreover, there are many new technologies that have completely changed the way a ship works, apart from reducing the carbon emission. A few examples of such green technologies are – the electric propulsion system, which uses an electric management system to improve the overall efficiency of the ship while reducing the exhaust; advanced green diesel engines, which consume less fuel, reduce carbon emission and produce least vibration and noise etc.

Thus, there are many methods for making a green ship green. Also, with the continuous increase in global warming, shipyards around the world are making extra efforts, in their own ways, to contribute towards mitigating the rising environmental concern. Therefore, it can be said that until the conditions related to green house effect don’t improve, the concept of “green ships” is here to stay.

Scientists have agreed to the necessity to limit Global Warming to 2 deg. C. A temperature increase of 2-4 deg. C will lead to:

increased droughts in certain areas.

increased precipitation in other areas.

more frequent and violent hurricanes.

A temperature increase of more than 4 deg. C will most likely change the planet as we know it today.

Kyoto Annex I countries have agreed to reduce GHG by 5.2% by 2012 compared with 1990 levels EU has proposed a 20-20-20, i.e. 20% reduction (compared to 1990 levels) by 2020 Scientists suggest a 50% reduction in GHG emissions by 2050 in order to limit Global Warming

to 2 deg. C.

How much CO2 comes from shipping?

• Two recent studies:

• IMO Expert Group on Air Pollution

• 2009 IMO Greenhouse Gas update study.

• Both use 2007 as reference year.

How much CO2 comes from shipping?

Two recent studies:

2007: 1100 mill. t

2020: 1400 mill. t

Shipping accounts for 3-4% of the total anthropogenic* CO2.

(*produced by human activities)

According to BIMCO company/Organization

Shipping emissions Shipping is projected to increase its GHG (CO2) emissions by approx. 25% from 2007 – 2020.

What are the options for shipping to reduce

CO2 emissions?

1. Improve efficiency

2. Reduce trade (slow steaming, lay-up)

3. Market Based Instruments (MBI)

• It was estimated by the IMO Expert Group that fuel efficiency of new ships can be increased in the order of 30-40%.

• Existing ships can gain 10%.

• Slow-steaming is very efficient, but will limit trade.

• Given the predicted growth in shipping, fuel consumption is estimated to increase with 24% - 28% between 2007 and 2020.

• If shipping is required to reduce its emissions, it cannot be done by technical and operational measures alone without disrupting world trade

• Market Based Instruments (MBI) will need to be applied in the form of Emission Trading or Fuel Levy.

• ETS are part of the Kyoto Protocol and are utilized in several land-based industries.

• EU has developed its own ETS.

• Aviation and Shipping were exempted from regulation by the Kyoto Protocol.

• In July 2008 the EU Parliament decided to include Aviation in the EU ETS.

• Several EU MEPs have expressed a need of also including Shipping in the EU ETS.

• IMO discussed a proposal for the establishment of a Global Shipping ETS at MEPC 59 in July 2009.

During 2009, the partners of Green Ship of the Future decided to work together on a concept study of so-called ‘low emission ships’. The purpose of the study was to investigate the possible overall emission reductions when the various available technologies from the Green Ship of the Future project were implemented already during the design phase of a new ship.

Studies were carried out for two different ship types, an 8,500 TEU container vessel and a 35,000 DWT handy size bulk carrier. The basis for the container vessel was a A-Type vessel from Odense Steel Shipyard, while the basis for the bulk carrier was a Seahorse 35 bulk carrier from Grontmij|CarlBro with a capacity of 35,000 TDW.

In the concept studies, only available and proven ‘green’ technologies were used, which meant that it was possible to build the ships as specified and documented by the two task-leading companies of the concept studies, Odense Steel Shipyard and Grontmij | Carl Bro.

The concept studies were carried out to benchmark the new technologies in relation to the goal of Green Ship of the Future (reduction of exhaust gas emissions) and in relation to the coming international regulations on NOX and SOX emissions and most probably also CO2 emissions by introduction of the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) for new ships.

Designing a ship is a very complex process because many aspects and constraints have to be taken into account simultaneously. Very often demands interfere with each other in a negative way so that by fulfilling one demand, another demand cannot be fulfilled or is even counteracted.

This interference means that it is not always possible just to accumulate the savings from each individual technology to get the total possible saving or reduction. In the present summary, focus has been on the following technologies:

Sulphur scrubber system

Liquefied natural gas as fuel

Advanced hull paint

Waste heat recovery (WHR)

Water in fuel system (WIF)

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

Other main engine technologies

Optimization of pump and cooling water systems

Advanced rudder and propeller designs

Speed nozzle

To ensure that the two concept ships fulfil the relevant Class regulations, all calculations and drawings have been approved by Lloyds Register, and each ship has thus been given a Class Notation.

A well-designed propeller and rudder system can save up to approximately 4% of the fuel oil consumption. Such a system could be a modern propeller combined with an asymmetric rudder and a so-called Costa Bulb.

With new propeller design methods modern propellers becomes more and more efficient. The Costa Bulb creates a smoother slipstream from the propeller to the rudder. With an asymmetric rudder, the rotational energy from the propeller is utilised more efficient compared to a conventional rudder.

Normally, nozzles are used to improve the bollard pull on tugs, supply vessels, fishing boats and many other vessels which need high pulling power at low speed.

This new kind of nozzle, called a speed nozzle, is developed to improve the propulsion power at service speed. Using the new speed nozzle concept has a saving potential of approximately 5%.

One way to fulfil the future regulations on sulphur emissions is to install an exhaust gas scrubber. This scrubber system use water to wash the sulphur out of the exhaust gas. Measurements have shown that SOx emissions are reduced with up to 98%. It is not only the sulphur which is reduced, also the content of harmful particles are reduced by approximately 80%.

Normally, the electrical power in harbour condition is supplied by using auxiliary engines running on heavy fuel or marine diesel. By using auxiliary engines running on LNG (liquefied natural gas) instead of conventional fuel, significant emission reductions can be achieved.

Emission reductions in the magnitude of approximately 20% on CO2, approximately 35% on NOx and 100% on SOx are the potential of switching from diesel to LNG.

The choice of the right hull paint is essential to keep the resistance at a minimum. Modern anti-fouling hull paint with a low water friction has a fuel saving potential in the region of 3 to 8%.

The reduction of emissions is proportional to the fuel savings.

The waste heat recovery system utilises the heat in the exhaust gas from the main engine. The exhaust gas contains a lot of heat energy which can be transformed into steam. The steam can then be used for heating of the accommodation, cargo areas and fuel oil. The steam can also be used for power generation in a turbo generator. Depending on the configuration, a waste heat recovery system can reduce the fuel consumption by 7 – 14 %.

The formation of NOx is dependent of the temperature in the cylinder liner. By lowering the temperature the NOx emissions are also lowered. By adding water to the fuel before injection, the temperature in the cylinder will be lowered. This will result in a reduction of NOX by 30-35%.

The formation of NOX emissions can be reduced by lowering the temperature in the cylinder liner of the main engine. One way of lowering the temperature is to recirculate some of the exhaust gas. Some of the exhaust gas is mixed with the scavenge air so that the oxygen content is reduced together with a lower temperature in the combustion chamber. Measurements have shown that this technology have a potential of NOX reductions of approximately 80%.

By using an optimised cooling water system it is possible to save up to 20% of the electrical generated power, corresponding to approximately 1.5% reduction of the total fuel consumption. Studies show that the resistance in the cooling water system often can be reduced. When the resistance is reduced smaller pumps can be used and thereby saving up to approximately 90% of the power needed for pumps.

’Green Ship of the Future’ is a Danish joint industry project for innovation and demonstration of technologies and methods that makes shipping more environmental friendly.

With respect to airborne emission the aim of the project is

to provide the necessary technologies and operational

means to reduce emissions as follows for new buildings:

30 % reduction of CO2 emissions

90 % reduction of NOx emissions

90 % reduction of SOx emissions

Turbo charging with variable nozzle rings results in high efficiency in a wider load range compared to traditional turbo chargers, especially at low engine loads, i.e. low speeds. Together with Maersk ABB has installed the new A100 VTG turbo charger with variable nozzle onboard Alexander Maersk. The system are currently undergoing tests but initial conclusions are very positive. Next stage for turbocharging is with two-stage turbo charging, which is currently being developed by ABB.

Optimisation of WHR system in close cooperation with partners. Determination of vessel operation profile and optimisation of engine for improved exhaust gas data. Installation of new exhaust gas fired boiler, turbo generator (steam/gas turbine and generator). Optimisation of WHR system given the available space constraints. Maersk is currently installing WHR on a wide range of vessels based upon the GSF project.

Re-design pump & auxiliary systems with a focus on power consumption. Introduce automated systems that continuously control the power demand.

In two projects, optimised control algorithms for Reefer systems (joint project with Lodam A/S) and for general High Temperature (HT) and low

temperature (LT) onboard refrigeration systems are being developed by Aalborg University. The latter system is designed for a Maersk newbuilding, and the effect is documented by means of advanced simulations. Potential: The project is still at an early stage, but preliminary results indicate significant energy savings, possibly as much as 45% (rough estimate)

GreenSteam is a new energy saving system for ships, providing reduction in energy consumption by adjusting ship trim and power. Based on readings from multiple sensors over a period of time, the relations between

the dynamically changing conditions and the energy requirements are mapped and analysed into a mathematical model. This model is used for onboard guidance to the crew as regards optimum trim and power. Fuel savings of at least 2.5% have been demonstrated onboard a product tanker owned by DS NORDEN A/S. The system will

be installed on 4 or more new NORDEN vessels during 2010.

The air resistance of a Bulk Carrier is approximately 5-8 percent of the total resistance. By advanced wind tunnel studies and optimization of the superstructure the air resistance will be lowered to a minimum. The following steps is included in the project:

• Wind Tunnel test of existing design.

• Superstructure optimization (eg. Crane, forecastle, accommodation –

Rounded shapes, elimination of recirculation zones etc.)

• The future bulk carrier where all traditions are reconsidered…

Based upon the results investigations might continue on other vessel types.

SeaTrim is a trim optimisation application based on model test results of a large matrix of different combinations of draught, trim and speed. SeaTrend is a system for performance monitoring, using operational data from the ship. With SeaTrim & SeaTrend installed onboard the six L-Class chemical tankers owned operated by Nordic tankers, it is the aim of the project to demonstrate the effect of the tools in terms of:

Ability to determine hull and propeller fouling and trends.

Ability to guide the crew as regards to optimum trim.

MAN Diesel’s propulsion division in Frederikshavn has developed a new nozzle, which can enhance the performance for many types of vessels. Where existing nozzles designs have primarily been applied to ships that requires high thrust at low ship speeds, the new product is intended for vessels with a higher service speed i.e. tankers, bulkers, PSVs etc. The new nozzle will be tested in model scale on a tanker that is operated by Nordic Tankers. The test will be carried out in the towing tank at FORCE Technology.

HEMPEL and FORCE Technology has made an official agreement to monitor all new applications of HEMPASIL X3 with the SeaTrend performance monitoring software. Currently a number of vessels have been applied with both X3 paint and SeaTrend

software. Based on the experience from the project the effect of the newest generation of silicone paints will be documented in real service.

The advanced version is specially suited for Short Sea Shipping and will allow the officers to plan their route taking into account ETA, weather (wind, waves and current), and shallow waters. With highly detailed weather prognoses of the North Sea and Baltic Sea (supplied by DMI) and with a GPS link, SeaPlanner continuously monitors and guides the Master on the optimum speed and heading. With this project DFDS and FORCE Technology will show the potential of the SeaPlanner based upon the experience gained through the initial operation. The system is currently installed on 7 vessels and will be installed on additional 15 vessels in spring 2010.

‘Lab on a ship’ (LOAS) is a new and innovative product by NanoNord. During bunkering LOAS provides online measurements of the elements of the bunker oil, lube oil, cylinder oil etc. In addition the system offers online measurements of exhaust gas emissions of NOx and SOx. With the LOAS system, the sulphur content of both the bunker oil and the exhaust emissions are measured and documented which is important for the verification of the MARPOL Annex IV regulations. LOAS is installed onboard two Bulk Carriers owned by Lauritzen Bulkers, and the project aims at demonstrating the applicability of the system.

The challenge was to take an existing modern design and evaluate the technologies suitable and to generate a picture of the improved performance of the vessel. We have evaluated two different vessel types. We have not changed the hull form, the DWT or other main parameters.

• Speed nozzle/optimized propeller

• Twisted spade rudder with Costa bulb

• Water in fuel (WIF)

• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

• Waste Heat Recovery system (WHR)

• Exhaust Gas Scrubber

• Ducted/direct air intake for main engine

• Optimised coolers and cooling pumps

• Auxiliary engine operation on marine diesel oil (MDO)

• High capacity fresh water generator.

Extra costs 5 mill USD (Corresponds to approx 20% of newbuilding costs)

8500 TEU container vessel, optimised with:

Water in Fuel technology (WIF)

Exhaust gas recycling (EGR)

Waste heat recovery exhaust boilers

Power and Steam turbine technology

Exhaust gas Scrubber

Extra costs 10 mill Euro (Corresponds to approx 10% of newbuilding costs)

With respect to NOx and SOx it is possible to reach the goals.

Reducing NOx and SOx will in some cases cost increased CO2 emission.

With respect to CO2 the study shows that we still need to work with

technical solutions and operation to meet goal.

Further reduction in CO2 must be obtained through continued efforts to

reduce vessel resistance, optimised operation (slow steaming), more

effective propulsion systems, more fuel efficient engines, alternative

fuel (LNG, Biofuel etc.) and addition of alternative green means of

propulsion (fuel cells, wind, solar etc.) etc.

Further reductions in CO2 will also reduce NOx and SOx emissions.

Retrofit challenges.

The challenge and objective of “The Green Ship of the Future” initiative is to reduce CO2 emissions by around 30 per cent and nitric and sulphuric oxides by 90 per cent. This initiative is using both familiar and new technologies. Green Ship of the Future is primarily focusing on the large, two-stroke engines of the type that are used in large ocean-going container ships and tankers.

The project was launched in 2008 by MAN Diesel & Turbo in conjunction with the A.P. Møller-Mærsk Group Danish shipping firm, Odense Steel Shipyard and Aalborg Industries. The initiative’s primary objective is to highlight and develop new technologies aimed at achieving a significant reduction in marine emissions. The project now has some 15 partners, including shipping companies, their suppliers and several Danish universities.

In the summer of 2009, the initiative won the International Environmental Award from Sustainable Shipping for being the most environmentally friendly transport initiative. Sustainable Shipping is one of the leading organisations championing the sustainable use of our seas and oceans. Panel of judges member Dr. Simon Walmsley from the World Wide Fund For Nature  (WWF) said: “If we want to safeguard the survival of our planet, we need to change our behaviour. No branch of industry can afford to neglect these essential changes.”

Shipping is an extremely eco-friendly form of transport, but with the Green Ship of the Future initiative, we are making even greater efforts to protect the climate and the environment. Together with our partners, we want to help contribute towards the development of products that are even more eco-friendly and will reduce emissions further.

MAN Diesel & Turbo is heading or participating in the following sub-projects arising from the Green Ship of the Future initiative:

• Exhaust Gas Scrubbers

• Lower Ship Speeds within certifications

• Auto-tuning of MAN Diesel & Turbo engines

• Emission reduction using exhaust gas recirculation

• Waste heat recovery

Green Technology

Overview of green and cost-saving technology from Aalborg Industries.

As market leading manufacturer of highly efficient and environmentally friendly equipment for the maritime market such as marine boilers and heat exchangers, thermal fluid systems and inert gas systems, the Aalborg Industries Group develops new green solutions to support our customers in building and operating their commercial fleet to the highest standard for low environmental impact.

Waste Heat Recovery

New and more efficient exhaust gas Waste Heat Recovery systems utilizing the heat in the exhaust after diesel engines or gas turbines to further improve the total efficiency of the propulsion plant, thereby reducing fuel consumption.

M.E. Exhaust gas scrubbers

Exhaust gas scrubber system after diesel Main Engines significantly reducing the sulphur oxide (SOx) emission as well as emission of particles.

Economizer after aux. engines

For new installations or retrofit, an efficient exhaust gas economizer utilizing the heat in the exhaust gas from the auxiliary engines during port stays will significantly reduce the oil consumption for the oil-fired boiler.

Ballast water treatment

In a joint venture with Aquaworx, Germany, Aalborg Industries will develop ballast water treatment equipment meeting IMO regulations to prevent, minimize and ultimately eliminate the transfer of harmful aquaticorganisms and pathogens.

Superheater for aux. boilers

Installing a superheater on an auxiliary boiler will increase the efficiency of the cargo pump turbine substantially and reduce the fuel consumption and emissions during discharge operation on crude oil carriers.

MGO burner modification

Aalborg Industries is developing a solution to facilitate safe and easy switching between fuels from HFO to MGO or MDO and back as required in ports in Europe and USA. Firing with MGO in ports is required to limit emissions of sulphur oxides (SOx) as per IMO, US and EU regulations.

Cooling system for LNG

Aalborg Industries Inert Gas Systems has developed a new cooling system for LNG carriers using a mere 10% of the usual quantity of Freon (which is a known greenhouse gas) while also using the new, environmentally friendly Freon type.

Electrical Steam Generation

Connected to the auxiliary steam boiler, the VESTA™ EH-S heater is for certain ship types replacing or acting as a Donkey boiler and an alternative to conversion of boilers for MGO operation. The VESTA™ EH-S heater complies with European standards and is designed for easy approval by the classification societies.

Waste heat recovery economizer

after auxiliary engines

In the coming years, the marine industry and shipowners face big challenges as new environmental legislations have special focus on the reduction of emissions from fossil fuels. Therefore Aalborg Industries has developed an efficient exhaust gas economizer utilizing the heat in the exhaust gas from the auxiliary engines during port stays, which will significantly reduce the oil consumption for the oil-fired boiler.

For several decades, we have installed WHR systems after the ship’s main engines and these units are to a large extend able to meet the vessels steam requirement during seagoing operation and for some installations also able to assist with the generation of electrical power.

The waste heat from the auxiliary engines has not been considered in the past, but it actually contains a large energy amount which can be utilized to assist with the steam requirements mainly during port stays, but for some vessels also during seagoing operation.

The WHR concept has been specially developed as a customized solution with special focus on energy generation compared to return of investment and payback time can be reduced to 7 months for a complete WHR boiler system, accessories and installation onboard the ship. The normal payback time will be approximately 1 to 1½ year depending on the number of days, the produced steam can be utilized (offset against of the steam requirement from the oil fired boiler) and the redundancy requirements.

We offer a concept based on well-proven and innovative solutions to ensure the best operation conditions and optimal return of investment. The design of the heating surface of the WHR boiler is the result of an enhancement of our wellproven technologies with a small footprint and the lowest possible weight to output ration.

To ensure the most advantageous design, the WHR boiler concept will be specially tailored to the individual ship and engine design with due consideration of existing uptake back pressure etc. The concept comes in two designs;

One that requires a steam space in another boiler (e.g. in an existing auxiliary boiler) and

One that has its own steam space.

Able to supply or support the steam demand during port stay

Cost of steam production (energy) is nearly free

Financially sound investment with very short payback time

Adds a “green” profile to the ship

Lower emission tax when finally agreed

Less maintenance and lower operating costs for the oil-fired boiler

Exhaust Gas Scrubbers

Dimensions/weight are indicative figures only and subject to change.

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Party Switching In The Philippines Political Agenda History Essay

History » Party Switching In The Philippines Political Agenda History Essay

Party switching seems to be a trend in the Philippine political agenda. Members of political groups tend to switch their loyalties to different parties, when they have the urge to do so or when the necessity comes. This so called party switching could also be coined as political turncoating.

Political turncoatism could be traced back from our history. This case study will aim to analyze the party turncoatism throughout the Philippine history. This will aim not only to explain the elitist and self-interest nature of politicians switching to different political parties, rather it will also explain other factors which influenced them to do so. Through a proper understanding within the nature of the political turncoatism in the country, the study also aims to strengthen its initial conclusions and findings through the use of a bill. Housebill 3655 is one important bill that needed to be focused on in this study. The nature and context of the Housebill is important, for it is the actual link and evidence of the eminent political turnocatism in the country. The Housebill 3655, an

This study will really aim to explain the reasons of the unchanging trend of turncoatism in the country through analyzing an actual bill in the country. It will also aim the political dynamics of turncoatism and the bill itself. It focuses on the bill and it will try to explain what the bill says about the current political party system here in our country.

According to Huggins and Turner (1997), “parties have become the principal way in which demands and expectations in society can be expressed and channelled (p.372).” Political parties play an important role in the government. In the Philippines, it can be seen that we have a multi party system present in the current political system. These political parties are very important in the decision-making and implementing processes here in the country. Due to this, it is inevitable politicians to switch on their loyalty and candidacy to different parties. We could observe this so called switching, or turncoatism, dating back from the previous years.

Before the colonial period, the country had a baranganic type of system, wherein we people are ruled by datus or chieftains. With this, we could say that there were no political parties formed yet during the era. Although, we could obtain an important element within the system that we had a few years ago. For Banlaoi and Carlos (1996), the chieftain playing the role of the padron, with the obligation to defend and advance the welfare of the commoner, shows the being clientelistic of the baranganic system. This moulding of clientelism in the political agenda is important in the later analysis of the paper.

With the colonialization of Spain, the baranganic system was merely abolished, but not completely in the whole country. According to Corpuz (as cited in Banlaoi & Carlos, 1996, p.43), “former barangay chieftains were coopted and converted into the principalia class assuming the position of either gobernadorcillo or cabeza de barangay whose function was predominantly those of tax collectors.” There has been a transition on the datus becoming members of the so called “principalia” class, and we could see that their rankings and job went down as tax collectors instead of rulers. Most of the members of the principalia class are linked to the colonizers, since they are granted to be in that class. However, importance of the establishment of gobernadorcillos should be noted. According to Banlaoi and Carlos (1996):

“Electoral System was introduced in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period. The position of gobernadorcillo became an elected office. But the introduction of an electoral system in the Philippines did not lead to the organization of political parties because the gobernadorcillo was not elected by the people. The gobernadorcillo was elected by an electoral board composed of the outgoing gobernadorcillo and twelve members of the principalia class. This elite-based electoral system hampered the development of political parties in the Philippines during the early part of the Spanish period especially during the 16th and 17th centuries (p.43).”

Although the establishment of political parties happened during the Spanish era, the emergence of major parties occurred during the Early American colonial period. An American type of government was established and a different form of system was created.

Political parties with independence platform are banned because of the Sedition Law. Only the Partido Federal received strong American support due to its platform. It was reported that their membership reached 200,000 in 1901 and was the most popular political organization in the country. Almost all Filipinos appointed to offices are from the party (Banlaoi and Carlos, 1996). It is important to know that there are other parties formed within the said period. But because of having the American support of the Partido Federal, the other parties lasted shortly only.

Then turn the two-party system within the colonial period. With the rise of the two-parties, turncoatism became predominant. According to Banlaoi and Carlos (1996), Pedro Paterno, a former member of Partido Federal and a founder of Partido Liberal, also joined the Nacionalista party which emerged as a dominant party until 1947. Banlaoi & Carlos (1996) said that the other party, the National Progresista Party, was a reactivated Partido Federal, yet it did not gain much of the support what Partido Federal used to have.

Eventhough the Nacionalista Party was the dominant party during a number of years, it experienced crises too. Major conversions of political party happened. As what Banlaoi and Carlos (1996) said:

“The first crises occurred in 1914 when some of its members, spear-headed by Teodoro Sandiko, bolted of the party to form Partido Democrate Nacional. The second crises happened in 1922 when Manuel Quezon, one of the very young leaders of the Nacionalista Party, organized Partido Nacionalista Collectivista (p.65).”

The Partido Democrata Nacional’s members were former Nacionalistas. It became the “third party” in the country. They accused Sergio Osmena, the president of Nacionalista, of authoritarianism and centralist leadership. They condemn the party and its leaders (Banlaoi and Carlos, 1996).

As what is stated earlier, another crisis of the Nacionalista Party was when Manuel Quezon organized Partido Nacionalista Collectivista. Banlaoi and Carlos (1996) described the Nacionalista Collectivista Party as Nacionalista Party Quezon Wing. It was said that Quezon accused Osmena “of unipersonalist and undemocratic party leadership” (Banlaoi & Carlos, 1996, p.67). Some Nacionalistas supported the cause of Quezon, and thus followers of Osmena and Quezon were soon described as Unipersonalistas and Collectivistas (Banlaoi and Carlos, 1996).

It is important to take note on the “crisis” of the Nacionalista Party. As what Banlaoi and Carlos (1996) concluded that “the split of Nacionalista Party was not brought about by opposing principles or ideologies and that the major factor that caused the division of the party was the question of who would govern the country (p.68).” Through it, we were to see that opposing principles are not only the main reasons why the officials switch their parties during that period.

During the commonwealth period, the Quezon and Osmena Wings of the Nacionalista party were reunited. Thus it became the dominant party during the period with Quezon as the president and Osmena as the vice (Banlaoi and Carlos, 1996). The authors added that, during the commonwealth period Quezon adopted a strong presidency, thus weakening party activity.

Minor parties are also active during the commonwealth period. But Banlaoi and Carlos (1996) asserted that these minor parties were organized and to adopt a common policy and platform that would challenge the dominant party, which is the Nacionalista Party. It should be noted that some of the minor parties were created by former members of the majority parties.

The Commonwealth period was interrupted by Japanese intervention in the country. As what our history tells us, the mark of Japanese Invasion was the mark of a new regime and ruling powers in the country. Banlaoi and Carlos (1996) said that parties led to voluntary dissolution during the Japanese occupation and it led to the rise of KALIBAPI that was created by Japanese Administration with former Nacionalistas as the leaders.

We can see that there had been transitions between the different parties during the different periods. First, we saw the dominance of a one-party system, the Partido Federal, which is backed up by the American government. With the decline, of the dominant Partido Federal, there had been an immediate emergence of a two-party system. The two-party system had been dominant in a number of years and because it had been active for quite a time, members of these groups tend to switch, create or split their own parties. With some members of groups making their own parties, this led to a multi-party system before the Japanese occupation period. However, we also encountered earlier that the other newly created wings or split of their own parties soon merged as one again. Eventhough there had been a weaking in the party system in the Quezon regime, the most weakening point of the multi-parties would be during the Japanese occupation. With the Japanese occupying the country, the multi-parties dissolved, and the dominance of a ‘one-party’ happened again in the history. With KALIBAPI backing up by the Japanese, some former Nacionalistas shifted their support to the dominant party during that period and they played an important role in the Philippine history. With this kind of trending in the party system in the Philippines, it is inevitable to have the same cases in the following years. Banlaoi and Carlos (1996) proved that during the independence period, 1946-1972, the two major political parties (Liberal and revived Nacionalista Party) competed for political supremacy although there were minor parties present during the post war period. Thus, we had a two-party system again in our history. Then there has been a split again in one party during in 1949. Banlaoi and Carlos (1996) added that the Liberal Party- Avelino wing and Liberal Party-Quirino wing was created. If we were to look at this split of the Liberal Party into different wings, we had the same encounter during the Nacionalistas split in Quezon and Osmena wing. The reasons of split in the Nacionalistas may be the same in the Liberal period. As what Banlaoi and Carlos concluded in the Nacionalista party split – that the split was about who would govern the country – it may hold the same truth in the Liberal Party split. Again if we were to look in the previous trends, we could see that there would be a merge again between the two wings. This is proved by the writing of Banlaoi and Carlos (1996); during the Quirino period, the president made the move to reunite the Liberal Party. The two major parties still became the dominant parties until the mid-way of the Marcos regime. The two parties had a shift of dominance in those periods. Former president Marcos, according to Banlaoi and Carlos (1996), was the standard bearer of the Nacionalista party, however, during the Martial Law period there had been a revival in the one-party politics and it is the dominance of his organized Kilusang Bagong Lipunan, or KBL. However, it is important to know that there are still minor parties within those periods, and that their number has increased, but they remained not dominant in the political arena. After the long reign of the Marcos regime, it is important to take note the regime that followed him, the Aquino period. Banlaoi and Carlos (1996) said that the former president Corazon Aquino replaced the constitution and this provided the establishment of a multi-party system in the Philippines. It was during the Aquino period, that multi-parties gained dominance in the political arena and that the position was not easily determined by a one or two party system. This kind of trend, the multi party-system, follows until the present Benigno Aquino Jr. regime.

The historical context of the switching of dominance and membership of political parties is important for the succeeding analysis of the political turncoatism in the Philippines. It will support our claims and it will help us develop an understanding better regarding the said issue.

A. Composition of Political Parties

Elitist Nature of Political Parties

Lande (1964) discussed that “in the Philippines as elsewhere parties led by the wealthy give considerably greater attention to the needs of the rich than those of the petty village elite or those of the common tao”. If we were to look at the membership of the political parties, we could see that mostly those who are active or having major contributions are the rich. As we saw earlier in the historical context, this kind of elitist system probably emerged in during the Spanish era. However, the rich does not compromise the whole membership in political parties.

It should be understood that looking at the elitist nature of the parties are not enough to explain turncoatism at large. The elitist nature of the political parties gives way to an explanation on the rampant patron-client relationship within the system.

Patron-Client relationship

B. Interest within Political Parties

Personal motives and ties

Political convenience

Party sponsored candidacy and election financing

C. Representation of Political Parties

Duties

Responsibilities

D. Legal Framework Influence

The Party-List Law

Constitution

E. Failure of minor parties

F. Media, business and foreign intervention

Media

Business

Foreign Intervention

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Popham The Lost Colony History Essay

 

For several centuries, American history books only contained information about two early English colonies, Jamestown and Plymouth. However, another colony was built, predictably almost simultaneously but lost for hundreds of years before its rediscovery. The colony first began when an expedition lead by George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert at second-in-command located their site in Maine, near the mouth of the Kennebec River. (2) The colony was first named Fort St. George, later changed to Popham, after the leader of its founder. However, Popham lasted merely over a year to be forgotten for the next four hundred years compared to Jamestown and Plymouth, which remained for a longer period.

After Popham’s fall, it was left behind to remain buried under the soils of a powerful nation until its rediscovery. In 1990, an archaeologist named Jeffrey P. Brain, decided to search for the remaining site of Popham when he (14c) learned of its history during a vacation in Maine. While searching for traces of where Popham was located, he came upon “The Hunt Map,” a detailed drawing of Popham drawn by a colonist, John Hunt. The map was spectacular and rare in the fact that it is the only known detailed map which records what buildings in early English colonies actually looked like. [¦] The map contained a total of eighteen buildings, including the admiral’s house, a chapel, and a storehouse. [¦] Nevertheless, (3) the accuracy of the map remained under question until Brian found the remains of a storehouse located exactly where the map pinpointed the building. [¦] Soon the map helped find the entire site where Popham existed. [¦] However, such a historically important source to England was mysteriously found in the Spanish archives. During the period of the settlement of English colonies, tensions between Spain and England were rising, making it more confusing on why the map was found in the Spanish archives. Beginning with the territorial claims of France in America, European nations such as England and Spain sought to colonize the New World in order to gain the upper hand in the fierce economic competition

Archaeologists have wondered why Popham seized to last for over a year while Plymouth and Jamestown succeeded. (6)Despite the hardships that Jamestown went through, it survived throughout the ages compared Popham which is believed to have suffered from fewer problems. Jamestown is known to have experienced a loss of approximately seventy percent of its population during “The Starving Period” while Popham has only one recorded death throughout its own history. In Jamestown, bones of various animals including horses, cats, and dogs were found, indicating that they were eaten by the colonists. (7) Archaeologists found it odd to find that animals of such quality, especially the horse, were eaten and assumed that colonists had to be extremely hungry to turn to such animals for food. Even though conditions in Popham were better than Jamestown, (14e) Popham was completely abandoned within three incidents. The death of Sir John Popham in England, the sponsor of the expedition, inflicted the first blow. Reduction of supplies and support for the colony caused changes and more problems were caused by this loss. In the following year, the leader, George Popham also died, following the succession of Raleigh Gilbert, nephew of a maritime adventurer. (9) Raleigh Gilbert, decided to leave for England when he learned that he had inherited the family’s estates after the death of his older brother. Without any potential leaders left, the colonists decided to return to England, while some may have left for Plymouth. Within a short period of just a little over a year after its founding, Popham was completely abandoned.

Nevertheless, Popham’s failure proves valuable in two ways. First, the experience and lessons taught at Popham were used by future colonies for their success. Colonists of Popham could have contributed to the success of Plymouth and Jamestown with their knowledge. (14f) It is stated that the failed colony became the cornerstone of early English America, giving an idea of how valuable its failure meant. Another fact that makes Popham so significant is that it lasted only a year, making it extremely rare among archaeological sites, which are usually covered with series of human development. Its short timeline allows archaeologists to depict the exact image of what early English America looked like. In this way, it has made an extraordinary contribution to history. Some archaeologists even suggest that Popham’s value lies in its failure itself.

Vocab.

The word “simultaneously” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Alternatively – ????

Subsequently – ? ??, ??

Coincidentally – ????? *

Fact

According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true about Popham?

American history textbooks contained information about Popham for several centuries-??

Popham lasted longer than any other early English colony-??

Popham was lost for four hundred years along with Jamestown and Plymouth-?? *

Fact

According to paragraph 2 the accuracy of the Hunt Map remained in question until

Eighteen buildings were discovered at a relatively similar location drawn in the map–?? ??

The person who had drawn the map was confirmed to have been a colonist in Popham-???

An archaeologist used the map to locate the entire site of the lost colony–? ?? ??? ??? ??? ? *

Infer

What can be inferred from the discovery of the map in the Spanish archives?

A Spanish merchant legally bought or traded the map from England in order to build their own colony - ??? ??? ??? *

England intentionally gave the map to Spain since it was of no value in its possession : ??

John Hunt was a Spanish colonist who was sent by Spain in means of cooperating and learning about the New World with England – ?? ??

Highlight

Which of the following sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information

The territorial claims in the New World made by France prompted European nations such as England and Spain to find progress in the New World– ???: (1) ? (2)? ?? *

Competition in the New World between European nations was augmented when Spain and England began to claim territorial rights in America – ??: ? ?? (1) ? ??? ?? (3) ? ??? ??

Due to fierce economic competition between European nations, England and Spain were both cooperating for progress in the New World, starting with territorial claims of France – ????: (2)? ???? ??

Fact

According to paragraph 3, why did the archaeologists wonder about the quick fall of Popham?

Popham had more leaders than the other two colonies – ?? ??

Popham had a larger population than Jamestown – ?? ??

There were no reported death in Popham throughout its history – ?? ?? *

Purpose

Why does the author mention horses, cats, and dogs?

In order to argue that early colonies commonly faced starvation – ??? ???? ??? (misleading) *

To explain that these animals were of high quality among colonists – ???

To give examples of animals that were commonly eaten by the colonists – ?? ? ??? ???? ??? ??

Refer

The word this in paragraph 3 refers to

Reduction of supplies

Not having a sponsor *

Reduction of support for the colony

Purpose

Why does the author mention the death of Raleigh Gilbert’s older brother

In order to explain why Raliegh Gilbert inherited the family’s estates – ??? *

To give another example of a death which lead to Popham’s fall – ?? ??

To suggest a reason why Raleigh Gilbert decided to stay in Popham – ?? ??

Vocab.

The word “potential” in the passage is similar in meaning to

Clever – ???

Skilled – ?? ?? *

Favorable – ????

Infer

It can be inferred through the fall of Popham that

Other colonies of different nations were influenced by the lessons taught from the failure of Popham – ?? ?? *

Popham eventually succeeded after overcoming several obstacles and struggles

Colonists in Popham later became important leaders in New England – ?? ??

Vocab.

The word “depict” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Recall – ????

Imagine – ???? *

Build - ~ ????

Insert

Look at the four squares [¦] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [¦] to add the sentence to the passage.

Answer: a

Summary

An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Popham was one of the first successful English colonies which settled in the New World – ??

Fierce economic competition among European nations included England, Spain, and France – ??? *

Compared to Jamestown, records indicate that there was only one death in Popham, unfortunately, John Hunt –??

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Sea Water Through Sea Water Reverse Osmosis Engineering Essay

This paper evaluates the use of energy recovery devices in sea water reverse osmosis. A Pressure exchanger is theoretically compared to other energy recovery configurations resulting in an energy recovery of around 60%. A test rig was implemented by first creating a CAD model of a pressure exchanger on solid edge, manufacturing it and implementing it in a small scale reverse osmosis system. Future work includes fixing minor defects with the test rig in order to carry out experimentation.

Key Words: Reverse Osmosis, Energy Recovery, Pressure Exchanger

Fresh water is defined as containing less than 1000 mg/L of salts or total dissolved solids (TDS). Above 1000 mg/L, properties such as taste, color, corrosion propensity, and odor can be adversely affected. [1]

With reference to fig. 1, The U.S. Geological Survey found that 97% of Earth’s water is located in the ocean, the remaining 3% makes up for the fresh water composition. Out of this 3%, around 2% of it is located in the ice caps and glaciers; the remaining 1%t includes surface water which comprises of swamps, lake and rakes. The remaining percentage is made up of brackish water, slightly salty water found as surface water in estuaries and as groundwater in salty aquifers. [1]

Today, the production of potable water has become a global challenge. With reference to fig. 2 projected population growth and demand exceed conventional available water resources. At present, around 1 billion people are without access to clean drinking water and approximately 40% of the world population lives in water shortage regions. [2]

Increasing demand & decreasing supply of water has led to ideas such as water conservation and water transfer or dam construction being implemented although they are still not sufficient to cope up with the population growth. Misuse or overuse of traditional fresh water resources such as lakes, rivers, and groundwater result in them either diminishing or becoming saline. At present due to global development, the introduction of few new water resources are available to support daily clean drinking water needs. The facts indicated above clearly show us that salt water desalination has emerged as the prime candidate to provide fresh drinking water to sustain future generations across the globe. According to a recent graph by ERI Inc., by 2016 capital expenditures for desalination will exceed 16 billion$ out of which more than 13$ is expected to be targeted for SWRO. This massive injection of finances will successfully incorporate additional clean drinking water production for all sorts of communities using conventional water treatment and fresh water resources. [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8]

A solvent moves from an area of low solute concentration, through a membrane, to an area of high solute concentration through osmosis. The movement of a pure solvent to equalize solute concentrations on each side of a membrane generates a pressure and this is the "osmotic pressure." With reference to fig 3. applying an external pressure to reverse the natural flow of pure solvent, thus, is reverse osmosis. [10]

Fig. 4 represents a typical reverse osmosis system which comprises of a high pressure pump and a membrane. The High pressure pump pressurizes sea water through a reverse osmosis membrane at pressure of approximately 60 bar as this is what’s needed in order to overcome the osmotic pressure. 40% of the flow from the membrane results as fresh water output while the remaining 60% is concentrated brine that is rejected with a great pressure loss. This pressure loss is fed back to the system using energy recovery devices which are detailed in 1.4.

The energy consumption still remains the major operational cost component due to the high pressure pumps required to feed water to the RO process. These pumps are responsible for more than 40% of the total energy costs [2]. Reducing energy consumption is, therefore, critical for lowering the cost of desalination and addressing environmental concerns. [9]

Before the concentrate stream is sent for disposal, pressure from the stream is recovered by passing it through an ERD. When an ERD is used, a fraction of the feed must bypass the primary high-pressure pump and a booster pump is used to account for pressure losses in the RO membrane modules, piping, and ERD. The fraction of power recovered depends on the type and efficiency of the equipment used. [11]

Greenlee et al. (2009) & Wang et al. (2004) discussed the two broad classes of ERDs. Class I devices use the hydraulic energy of the RO concentrate by first converting the energy to centrifugal mechanical energy and then back to hydraulic energy. This is a two-step process. Class II devices use hydraulic power to cause a positive displacement within the energy recovery device and this transfers the hydraulic energy directly in a one step process. [12]

Stover (2007) provided a detailed description of Class I Centrifugal ERDs (such as the pelton wheel, reverse running turbine pump and turbo charger). They are limited in capacity and are usually optimized for narrow flow and pressure operating conditions. Initially, Francis turbines were applied, but they were replaced by pelton turbines that operated at higher efficiency in high-head applications and provided a maximum possible efficiency of 90% [13] Oklejas (2005) mentioned the turbo charger consists of an impeller and turbine on the same shaft, this is typically used in smaller capacity RO installations as its efficiency ranges from 55% to 60%. [14].

Mirza (2008) discussed mechanically coupled reverse running turbine pump that have efficiencies in the range of 75% to 85%. For the submersible generator type, the overall efficiency is in the 62% to 75% range. Therefore, this type of ERD is not suitable for a low flow range. [16]

At present, most of the desalination plants use a Class II type of ERD namely a pressure or work exchanger that can achieve efficiencies greater than 95% (Greenlee et al. 2009). The PWE transfers the hydraulic energy of the pressurized RO concentrate stream to the RO feed water stream. [13],[15] PWE systems can be categorized as two types: those that provide a physical barrier (piston) between the RO concentrate stream and feed side of the system, such as a Dual Work Exchanger Energy Recovery (DWEER), and those without a physical barrier such as a Pressure Exchanger (Cameron and Clemente 2008; Mirza 2008). In the case of a DWEER, the system is based on moving pistons in cylinders which is well suited for a wide range of water viscosities and densities, but results in a large foot print (Mirza 2008). A Pressure exchanger device has higher efficiency since no transformational losses occur in the device, higher capacity is achieved by arranging several devices in series. Disadvantages include limited flow rates, high noise levels requiring a sound abatement enclosure (Mirza, 2008) and the degree of mixing that occurs between the feed water and concentrate stream. A feed salinity increase of 1.5%e3.0% caused by such mixing will increase the required feed pressure for the RO system (Wang et al. 2005). [16],[17]

M. Barreto et. al. (2010) worked on a RO kinetic energy recovery system which is in the form of a closed loop. feed water accumulated in one of the pressure exchangers is pressurized with a high pressure pump (HPP) by making a closed circuit between the membrane output and the reverse osmosis module input, where a water tank (pressure exchanger) and a booster pump are fitted into the line. It also consists of inertia valves, expansion bladder. The water entering or leaving them, which must be pressurized or depressurized, is always in continual motion to avoid unnecessary consumption of kinetic energy that arise from stops in the operation . Certain advantages include: Reduced specific energy consumption & total cost, 97% energy efficiency, reduced capacity of the HPP, Decrease in the amount of antiscalant needed and low mixing percentage between seawater and brine in the isobaric chamber. [5]

Xiaopeng Wang et. Al. (2010) worked on a positive displacement (PD) ERD known as the FS-ERD that was mainly composed of three portions, a rotary fluid switcher, two pressure cylinders and a check valve nest. The rotary fluid switcher was the core component that consisted of four joint ports and two working phases similar to a two position four-way valve. When the FS-ERD accomplishes its pressurizing stroke (and also the depressurizing stroke), the switcher would rotate to working phase II at a low speed of 7.5 rpm driven by motor, which denotes that the stroke modes in cylinders are alternated to each other. The switcher accomplishes its phase change by rotating its multi-channel rotor around the switcher's shell. Single alone and parallel operation (Flow rate and pressure fluctuations) tests showed that the parallel operation of two sets of ERDs can not only extend the capacity of the system but also remarkably improve the stability and continuity of the working streams to and from the ERDs. The maximum recovery efficiency achieved is 95%. The long contact time (20 to 60 seconds) between the brine and seawater in the isobaric chambers results in some intermixing, resulting and an increase in the membrane feed salinity of up to 1.5%. [18]

From the literature review it is clear that isobaric ERDs deliver higher efficiency than centrifugal devices, but centrifugal devices are generally better characterized and are easier to maintain and operate. Rotary isobaric devices provide a unique combination of isobaric and centrifugal features with high energy transfer efficiency, no maintenance, and easy operation

The pressure exchanger comprises of a Rotor (the only moving device) that rotates about a longitudinal axis and has a plurality of continuous rotor channels having openings on each rotor end face arranged around the longitudinal axis of the rotor with the rotor channels communicating with the connection openings of the housing via flow openings formed in the housing such that during the rotation of the rotor the rotor channels alternately carry high pressure liquid and low pressure liquid from the respective first and second liquid systems. This is enclosed in housing along with hydrodynamic bearings. On either side of the rotor, end covers are fixed with inlet and outlet connection openings for each liquid. The end covers and rotor are enclosed in a sleeve. [13]

With reference to Figure 3, Low pressure sea water enters the pressure exchanger and fills rotor, this sea water is then exposed to high pressure concentrate from the membrane. Pressure transfers directly from the concentrate to the sea water inside the rotor ducts. Spent concentrate leaves the rotor ducts as it gets pushed out by low pressure sea water. The ducts of the rotor functions like a carousel charging and discharging. Water around the narrow gap in the rotor serves as a lubricant. [13]

In the design stage for inlets into the rotor channels, the flow ratios are based on velocity triangle diagrams in which the circumferential component c u generates a driving torque for the rotor as a momentum force. This circumferential component is designed to be larger than the circumferential velocity U of the rotor. The rotor inlet edges formed between the openings of the rotor channels with the wall surfaces which follow in the direction of flow are constructed so that the resulting relative flow of the rotor is received without impact by the rotor channels and is deflected in the direction of the rotor channel length.

Such a design of the inlet of the rotor channels also includes the advantage that when there is a change in volume flow, the triangle diagram of the velocity at the inlet of the rotor channels undergoes an affine change, i.e., the circumferential component c u changes to the same extent as the oncoming flow velocity c of the liquid. Thus the driving torque acting on the rotor also increases, leading to an increase in the rotor rpm. With an increase in rotor rpm, the frictional moment acting on the rotor and having a retarding effect also increases. Due to the linear relationship between the driving torque M I which increases with an increase in the circumferential component c u and the frictional moment M R which increases in proportion to the rotational speed, the circumferential velocity of the rotor is always established so that the triangle diagrams of the velocity conditions which prevail at the rotor inlet are similar for all volume flows. There is thus a self-regulating effect which guarantees the condition of impact-free oncoming flow for each volume flow established. The rotational speed of the rotor is thus corrected based on the congruent velocity triangle diagrams and an impact-free oncoming flow of the rotor channels for volume flows of the main flows that are altered due to system conditions.

A rotor is constructed in multiple parts, whereby a rotor part having straight rotor channels on its end faces is provided with one or two incoming flow plates, and inlet openings and/or downstream channel beginnings which make the channel flows uniform are arranged in the incoming flow plates.

Rotor channels having a trapezoidal cross section are arranged so they are axially parallel to and concentric with the axis of rotation of the rotor , with wall surfaces designed as webs running radially between the rotor channels extending between the rotor channels. The openings in the rotor channels arranged on the end face of the rotor have additional rounded surfaces on their radially outer corners in the manner of inclined surfaces that widen diagonally outward, so that each opening is slightly enlarged.

Opposite the openings of the rotor with its axially parallel rotor channels, The velocity triangle diagram for a liquid flowing into the rotor, comprising velocity vectors U, w and c, where the arrows indicate the directions and the magnitudes of the various velocities, where:

U=circumferential velocity of the rotor

w=relative flow in the opening upstream from the rotor channel

c=absolute flow of the liquid flowing out of the housing and to the rotor, where:

c u =circumferential component of the absolute flow and

c x =axial component of the absolute flow,

?c u =driving velocity for the rotor=c u -U

a=angle of flow of the absolute flow c

ß=angle of flow of the relative flow

The flow to the rotor 1 is passed through a housing part opposite the rotor (not shown) which is opposite the rotor so that the flow in the stationary reference system strikes the rotor 1 as an absolute flow c at the angle a. The rotor 1 rotates with the circumferential velocity U and accordingly the relative flow w strikes it at the angle ß. The circumferential component c u of the absolute flow c is greater by ?c u than the circumferential velocity U of the rotor, thus ensuring the required driving torque of the rotor.

Because of the relative oncoming flow angle ß, which is different from zero, the oncoming flow of the rotor channels in the relative system is not free of impact. Consequently, separations in the form of eddies are constantly developing in the openings in the rotor channels and as a result an irregular velocity profile is established within the flow in the remaining path of the rotor channels. These irregular velocity profiles lead to the mixing problems.

(Kochanowski, 2007)

Reverse osmosis systems consisting of a pressure exchanger, pelton turbine and no energy recovery device have been analyzed below. Block diagrams of each energy recovery device had been constructed to asses and analyze the forces acting on the fluid.

The fluid flow through the rotor channels is viscous.

Mixing occurs in the rotor channels

Eg. Efficiency =

Mixing =

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

m3/day

130

111

19

111

130

13

117

117

bar

2.5

2.5

62.0

59.8

62.0

0.0

60.4

2.0

ppm

35,000

35,000

35,000

35,436

35,616

200

39,551

39,137

Fresh Water Output

13 m3/day

Membrane recovery rate

10%

Membrane feed pressure

62.0 bar

Membrane differential pressure

1.6 bar

Pressure Exchanger Low Pressure discharge pressure

2.0 bar

Feedwater salinity

35,000 mg/l

Motor frequency

50Hz

Cost of power

0.10 $/Kwh

High pressure Pump efficiency

90%

High pressure Pump motor efficiency

87%

Booster pump efficiency

48%

Booster pump motor efficiency

88%

Booster pump VFD efficiency

97%

Pump efficiency

90%

Motor efficiency

87%

Power consumed

1.7 KW

Pump efficiency

48%

Motor efficiency

88%

VFD efficiency

97%

Power consumed

0.7KW

Unit flow

4.9 m3/hr

Lubrication per array

0.2 m3/hr

Lubrication flow

5%

Differential pressure High Pressure side

0.6 bar

Differential pressure Low Pressure side

0.5 bar

Efficiency

93.7%

Mixing at membrane feed

1.8%

Operating capacity

71.6%

Power Savings

9.0KW

Estimated CO2 Savings

47tons/year

Specific power consumption

kWh/m3

4.34

Power cost saved with the pressure exchanger

$/year

7,913

Recovery

10%

Membrane differential

bar

1.6

A

C

F

G

m3/day

130

130

13

117

bar

2.5

60.9

0.0

59.3

mg/l

35,000

35,000

200

39,551

Mechanical energy recovered

0.0 KW

HP pump shaft power

15.4 KW

Motor shaft power

15.4 KW

Motor electrical power

17.2 KW

HP Pump efficiency

57%

HP Pump motor efficiency

90%

Net transfer efficiency

57%

Total power consumption

17 KW

Specific power consumption

31.75 KWh/m3

A

E

F

G

H

m3/day

130

130

13

117

117

bar

2.5

60.9

0.0

59.3

0.0

mg/l

35,000

35,000

200

39,551

39,551

Turbine efficiency

56%

HP Pump efficiency

57%

HP Pump motor efficiency

90%

Net transfer efficiency

32%

Mechanical energy recovered

4.5KW

HP pump shaft power

15.4KW

Motor shaft power

10.9KW

Motor electrical power

12.2KW

Recovery

10%

Membrane differential

1.6 bar

Total power consumption

12 KW

Specific power consumption

22.47 KWh/m3

Power saved with Pressure Exchanger

18.13 KWh/m3

81%

Cost saved with Pressure Exchanger

8,604

Based on the tabulated values give above a certain set of trends and variations can be observed

Considering all the aspects taken into account for the direction of this project it seems the results obtained are viable.

With reference to fig 22. as the recovery rate increases the brine concentration, and the membrane flow is insufficient to remove the salts that deposit on the membrane surface. This in turn increases the pressure drop, thus increasing the HPP energy consumption by decreasing the efficiency of the pressure exchanger.

With reference to fig. 23, the pressure drops and viscous friction associated with the pressure exchanger can be explained

The pressure of the feed water flowing from the Pressure exchanger is slightly lower than the pressure of the brine fed to it.

Similarly, the pressure at the brine outlet of the Pressure exchanger is slightly lower than the pressure at the feed water inlet.

With reference to fig. 24, as the flow rate increases, the mixing that takes place between the high pressure sea water exit of the pressure exchanger and the sea water pressurized by the high pressure pump reduces.

Mixing is one of the biggest issues in a pressure exchanger design even though trapezoidal channels are employed.

With reference to fig. 25, the rotor sits on hydrodynamic bearings. Around the rotor a narrow gap filled with water serves as lubrication that helps it spin at a constant rate of approx... 1200 rpm. At a higher flow rate the amount of lubrication provided to the hydrodynamic bearings reduces and settles to around 3.5% at around 200 m3/day

With reference to fig. 26, fig. 27, fig. 28 and fig. 29 the amount of energy recovered by the pressure exchanger is almost 30% more than what a conventional pelton turbine can achieve followed by a saving of almost 60% in a system with no energy recovery device. The high pressure pump accounts for almost 70% of the energy in the reverse osmosis process, introducing a pressure exchanger reduces the energy consumption as compared to any other system. Lower flux rates and lower recovery rates generally result in lower system energy consumption. Fitting a pressure exchanger in plants without any energy recovery would result in massive savings/year. This would even encourage new businesses and would eventually lead to water abundance!

As the recovery ratio increases, the power cost saved decreases; an optimal system would function at 40% recovery.

With reference to fig. 30, The limit is 80%; past that a trend is observed where in the pressure exchanger efficiency is lesser than that of the pelton wheel for higher recovery ratios.

The two most important measures of energy recovery device performance are energy transfer efficiency and concentrate-feedwater mixing, both of these have been met at a very high scale using the pressure exchanger energy recovery device.

Compared to older energy recovery systems, RO systems consume 15 to 35% less power with pressure exchangers

Reduced High pressure pump consumption and system power consumption drop.

A restricted operating range and mixing of the two liquids found in the rotor channels during operation.

7 Conclusions

The global water crisis has reached such a stage where action is needed right now. This paper looks into recovering energy for a typical reverse osmosis in order to make it more affordable and efficient. From the results presented above it is quiet clear that the pressure exchanger fulfils what has been mentioned.

From the literature review, we gather key information about the different types of energy configurations used. It was necessary to understand how a reverse osmosis system works. Each part in detail. Assume certain parameters and calculate system outputs.

A block diagram of the reverse osmosis system with 3 different energy recovery configurations was drawn. Certain parameters regarding efficiency, feed pressure...etc were assumed. Next these inputs values were fed into the system, a set of equations were used in order to calculate flow, pressure...etc at each point and ultimately the system power consumption and performance. The analysis shows that the pressure exchanger recovery system recovers almost 95% of the energy wasted in the brine.

To further investigate this proposal, a CAD model of the pressure exchanger was built in CAD, drawings were obtained and it was manufactured using acrylic. A household reverse osmosis unit was purchased for testing. Obtaining experimental results from the test rig would be ideal to validate the theoretical results. A real life model would include losses as well which would provide useful insight.

A CAD model of the pressure exchanger was created in solid edge; drawings for each part were produced and handed over to the workshop where manufacturing took place using acrylic.

A rod was purchased to be inserted through the apparatus. On either end covers pipe fittings for the LP, HP Sides were connected.

Silicon Glue was used to place the parts in place.

The system would be tested out by measuring the flow, pressure and salinity at each point. This would be later validated by the theoretical results obtained.

A reverse osmosis system consisting of a pressure exchanger was modeled as shown in figure 5, 6 and 7.

Perform experimentation and obtain values for pressure, flow rate and salinity at each point.

Install fluid bearings (hydrodynamic) to the pressure exchanger model.

Replace the existing pipes and fittings with larger diameter counterparts.

First of all I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Sarim for not only being a great supervisor but for being a great friend. Mr. Mohamed the lab technician also deserves a special note as it was with him that the test rig was able to be set up. Credit goes out to my colleagues for guiding me in case of any hurdle faced.

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