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Study Of Multimedia Data Compression Methods Engineering Essay

In this report, there are 2 experiment which are about ‘Audio Compression Using Down sampling and Quantization’ and ‘Image Compression Using JPEG’The aim of the experiment is understand how audio compression and image compression is done using different method and which is more effective. A few of the major findings are, for the audio compression, sampling and quantization determines the quality of the compressed audio.For image compression, DCT and quantization determines the compression ratio and image quality.

Keywords

INTRODUCTION

AUDIO COMPRESSION USING DOWN-SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION

2.1 Experiment 1: Effect of sampling rate and quantization resolution on sound quality

For multimedia data, it has high redundancy with result in very large file size. A set of discreet sound samples compose an audio date. Quantization and representation by binary code is done to each sound sample obtain. In this experiment, the principles of sampling continuous time signal, increasing or decreasing the sampling rate of a discrete time signal and change the quantization resolution are being explored. Speeches and music audio are recorded with various sampling rates and bits per sample, sampling rate conversion and quantization on digital signals are applied. Each of the sound quality obtained by different filters and quantizers are compared and each of them are observed.

2.1.1 Experiment Procedure

Part 1) Investigate the effect of sampling rate and bits per sample on sound quality

1) Different sampling frequencies and bit rate of audio recording.

a. Windows Media Player on the computer is started.

b. The recording control is configured to change the source of sound input.

The volume control panel is opened. (double-click the “speaker” icon in system tray), select “options-

properties->recording”, then select “CD Audio, Microphone, Stereo Mix” to all these three items in

recording control panel, as shown in Fig. 1, and click “OK”.

In recording panel below(Fig. 2), “Stereo Mix” is select d so the internal sound of the computer can be recorded

The sound recorder is opened (accessory -> entertainment -> sound recorder). The recorder properties are adjusted to set the sampling rate be 11.025 KHz, 8 bits/sample by selecting “file->properties->convert now”( Fig. 4). “PCM” is chosen for “format”, “11.025 KHz, 8 bits, mono” is chosen for “attributes”, type “.wav” for “save as”.

The “record” button is push and 30 seconds of the played audio is record. A file is used to save it using the “.wav” format.

The same audio segment is recorded using different sample rates and bits/sample and the sound quality is compared. The following is how audio quality can be subjectively evaluated:

Perceptual Quality

Comment

Poor

The sound is corrupted by excessive noise and the sound is no longer understandable

Acceptable

The sound is corrupted by moderate noise level

Good

The sound quality is perceived to be similar to the original sound

the procedure above for the following recording parameter are repeated and the perceptual quality is commented.

Sampling rate = 11.025 KHz

Music

8 bits/sample

Acceptable

Music

16 bits/sample

Good

Speech

8 bits/sample

Acceptable

Speech

16 bits/sample

Good

Sampling rate = 44.1 KHz

Music

8 bits/sample

Acceptable

Music

16 bits/sample

Good

Speech

8 bits/sample

Acceptable

Speech

16 bits/sample

Good

Here, we can see that the more bits per sample , the better quality is obtain and with the higher sampling rate, the better quality of audio is sampled.

The two programs on a sound file you have recorded earlier can be apply using a sampling frequency of 44KHz sampling frequency, 16 bits/sample.

MATLAB program is started. Directory is changed to your own working directory. All the program files and sample audio files are copied to your directory.

The “down4up4_nofilt” program is used on a sound file recorded with sampling frequency of 44KHz. Type For example : down4up4_nofilt(‘myinput.wav’,’myoutput.wav’)on the command window of MATLAB.

The mean square error is computed by the program between the original and the interpolated signal. The original sound and the one after down-sampling and upsampling are compare the in terms of perceptual sound quality, waveform, frequency spectrum and mean square error. ? The result are tabulated and analyze the result

Repeat the steps from part b. but use “down4up4_filt” instead. The results are tabulated and analyzed.

Without filter

withfilter

MUSIC

Down-sampling/Up-sampling

(No filter used)

Down-sampling/Up-sampling (With filter)

Mean square error

0.000638157

0.000130789

Perceptual Quality

Acceptable

Good

Comment on waveforms

Discrete,The levels are very high

Discrete,The levels are lower

Comment on frequency spectrum

The spectrum is oscillating in a decreasing manner and rise up at the end

The spectrum is oscillating in a decreasing manner

With the fliter, the quality is better due to it reducing the noise effect, thus reducing the mean square error.

Two MATLAB programsare given, quant_uniform.m and quant_mulaw.m. an input sequence using a uniform quantizer with a user-specified number of levels are quantized by the “quant uniform” . The mu- law quantizer is the “quant_mulaw” program to quantize it.

“quant_uniform” function is applied to a sound file recorded with 16 bits/sample to quantize it to a lower quantization levels. As an example to use 256 quantization levels (8 bits per sample) use N=256. Type (example)

quant_uniform(‘myinput.wav’,’myoutput.wav’,256) on the command window of MATLAB.

The original sequence and quantized sequences are compared with different quantization levels ( in terms of perceptual sound quality and the waveform). The quantization error (mean square error between the original and quantized samples) are recorded and compared. determine the minimum ‘N’ to which has a good sound quality.

“quant_mulaw” function is applied to a sound file recorded with 16 bits/sample, with mu=16.

The experiment is repeated for both music and speech audio data. Different quantization levels N are used. determine the minimum N to obtain an acceptable sound quality. Tabulate the result.

N is quantization level

N = 2b

b = number of bits used per level

Uniform quantization

Mu-Law quantization

Mu = 16

Mean square error (mse)

Perceptual quality

poor/acceptable

/good

Mean square error (mse)

N= 212

= 4096

1.17327X108

Good

1.36375X109

N= 210

= 1024

1.8777 X107

Good

2.30712X108

N= 28

= 256

2.95153X106

Acceptable

3.66273X107

N= 26

= 64

5.27229X105

Poor

5.52074X106

N= 24

= 16

0.00112348

Poor

9.02207X105

Uniform quantization(min acceptable) = N= 28

Mu-Law quantization(min acceptable) = N= 26

N is quantization levels

N = 2b

b = number of bits used per level

Uniform quantization

Mu-Law quantization

Mu = 16

Mean square error (mse)

Perceptual quality

poor/acceptable

/good

Mean square error (mse)

N= 212

= 4096

1.15236X108

Good

3.15122X109

N= 210

= 1024

1.84788X107

Acceptable

5.02324X108

N= 28

= 256

2.92896X106

Poor

8.06364X107

N= 26

= 64

4.744 X105

Poor

1.28916X105

N= 24

= 16

0.000769637

Poor

0.000207797

Uniform quantization(min acceptable) = N= 210

Mu-Law quantization(min acceptable) = N= 28

N=16

N=64

N=256

N=1024

N=4096

Mul

N=16

N=64

N=256

N=1024

N=4096

SpeechUni

N=16

N=64

N=256

N=1024

N=4096

MulSpeech

N=16

N=64

N=256

N=1024

N=4096

Here , we can see that the high quantization level, N. the better the sound quality and the error is smaller.

However the Mu-Law quantization is better than the uniform quantization, as the it has smaller distance between two levels at the lower frequency as our ears are more sensitive to lower frequency.

Conclusion is, as seen the experiments above, the higher sampling rate and bits per sample and with filter and using Mu-law quantization give a batter sound quality.

Investigate the effectiveness of JPEG scheme for compressing photographic image

Represent compressed image in frequency domain using DCT transform

Investigate the importance of different DCT coefficients

Investigate the tradeoff in the selection and quantization of DCT coefficients and its effect on compression ratio and image quality.

Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) is the center of most popular lossy image compression standard. the JPEG compression standard on the internet. how to transform an image into a series of 8 x 8 DCT coefficients blocks, how to quantize the DCT coefficients and then how to reconstruct the image based on the quantized DCT coefficients will experimented. The comparison can be perform between the original image and the decompressed image.

In the Image processing toolbox, the two dimensional discrete cosine transform (DCT) of an image is c computed with dct2 function .The DCT has the property, most of the visually significant information about the image is concentrated in just a few coefficients of the DCT for a typical image. Thus, the DCT is often used in image compression applications.

Ways to compute the DCT, the image processing toolbox offers two different. First is to use dct2 function which uses an FFT based algorithm for quick computation with large inputs. It may be more efficient to use the DCT transform matrix, which is returned by the function dctmtx for small square inputs, such as 8-by-8 or 16-by-16. The M-by-M transform matrix T is given by:

T*A is an M-by-M matrix whose columns which have one dimensional DCT of the columns of A. The two dimensional DCT of A can be computed as,B=T*A*T’, where T’ is the transpose of T. Its inverse is the same as its transpose since T is a real orthonormal matrix.Thus, T’*B*T is the inverse two dimensional DCT of B.

The input image is divided into 8-by-8 or 16-by-16 blocks, and the two dimensional DCT is computed for each block for JPEG image compression algorithm. DCT coefficients are quantized, coded, and transmitted. Then, the quantized DCT coefficients, compute the inverse two-dimensional DCT of each block, and then puts blocks back together into a single image decodes by JPEG receiver. Many of the DCT coefficients have values close to zero for typical images. The quality of the reconstructed image is maintain eventhough these coefficients can be discarded.

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ];

A = imread(‘cameraman.tif’);

A = double(A)/255;

B = blkproc(A, [8 8], ‘P1*x*P2’, T, T’);

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], ‘P1.*x’,Mask);

D = blkproc(C, [8 8], ‘P1*x*P2’, T’, T);

imshow(A), figure, imshow(D);

The mini program above, Observe and understand

The grayscale image ‘cameraman.tif’ is compressed and decompressed according to the code above

The difference between the original image and the reconstructed image is observe. Are there any difference noticeable?

observe on the quality of the reconstructed image with several different quantization matrices. What if quantization matrix having all the elements in the is set to 1?

Can all of the DCT coefficients be removed except for the DC value without affecting the quality of the reconstruct images by too much? Discuss your answer.

The above experiments is repeated using ‘rice.tif’ image.

compression and decompression of the grayscale image ‘cameraman.tif’

cameraman

Original image

Reconstructed image

After compression, the reconstructed image does not preserve the quality in the original image as it look blurer. This is caused the part which is set to ‘0’ in the quantization matrix during compression.

Matlab Code : image compression and decompression by using 8x8 DCT matrix.

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ];

A = imread(‘cameraman.tif’);

A = double(A)/255;

B = blkproc(A, [8 8], ‘P1*x*P2’, T, T’);

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], ‘P1.*x’,Mask);

D = blkproc(C, [8 8], ‘P1*x*P2’, T’, T);

If all the elements in the quantization matrix is set to 1:

cameraman

Original image

cameraman

Reconstructed image

The Reconstructed image and the Original image are the same .This is caused by when all the parts in the quantization matrix are all set to ‘1’. Thus, no compression is done.

Matlab Code : image compression and decompression by using 8x8 DCT matrix.

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1];

A = imread('cameraman.tif');

A = double(A);

B = blkproc(A, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

imshow(uint8(A)), figure, imshow(uint8(D));

If remove all of the DCT coefficients except for the DC value

cameraman

Original image

Reconstructed image

We are unable to remove all the DCT coefficient except the DC value without affecting the quality of the reconstructed image. This is because when the DCT coefficient are removed, the high frequency are removed as well. Thus, information are lost. With the DCT gone,it is at a high compression ratio and high quality drop. With this, a very blur with blocking effect image is reconstructed.

Matlab Code : image compression and decompression by using 8x8 DCT matrix.

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ];

A = imread('cameraman.tif');

A = double(A);

B = blkproc(A, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

imshow(uint8(A)), figure, imshow(uint8(D));

compression and decompression of the grayscale image ‘rice.tif’

rice

Original image

Fullscreen capture 2172009 112125 AM

Reconstructed image

The reconstructed image is blurred and the quality is reduced. This result is the same as the result of ‘camera.tif’.

Matlab Code : image compression and decompression by using 8x8 DCT matrix.

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ];

A = imread('rice.tif');

A = double(A);

B = blkproc(A, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

imshow(uint8(A)), figure, imshow(uint8(D));

If all the elements in the quantization matrix is set to 1:

rice

Original image

rice

Reconstructed image

The Reconstructed image and the Original image are the same . This result is the same as the result of ‘camera.tif’.

Matlab Code : image compression and decompression by using 8x8 DCT matrix.

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1];

A = imread('rice.tif');

A = double(A);

B = blkproc(A, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

imshow(uint8(A)), figure, imshow(uint8(D));

If remove all of the DCT coefficients except for the DC value

rice

Original image

Reconstructed image

The reconstructed image is very blurred. . This result is the same as the result of ‘camera.tif’.

Matlab Code : image compression and decompression by using 8x8 DCT matrix.

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ];

A = imread('rice.tif');

A = double(A);

B = blkproc(A, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

imshow(uint8(A)), figure, imshow(uint8(D));

The color image ‘peppers.png’ is loaded into Matlab. They are first converted to the YCbCr color format, followed by sub-sampling of the chrominance (Cb & Cr) channels for the compression of color images. Use the function rgb2ycbcr and ycbcr2rgb to convert to YCbCr color space and vice versa. Use the function imresize to sample the chrominance channels. Use the same mask as in the code above for both the luminance and chrominance channels.

Without any sub-sampling ,perform the DCT and quantization on all the channels then reconstruct the image and the quality of the image is observed.

Using the 4:2:0 chroma sub-sampling,perform the DCT and quantization on every channel then reconstruct the image and the quality of the image is observed.

Any significant differences between the two reconstructed images are there above? Discuss your answer.

A simple function is written that takes an image and a mask as the input, perform compression and decompression on the image (color image compression if input image is color), and display the original and reconstructed images side by side. the SNR of the reconstructed image should be able to compute by the program.

1)DCT and quantization on all the channels without any sub-sampling.

peppers

Original image

Compress in RGB format

Compress in YCbCr format

Matlab Code : image compression and decompression

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ];

A = imread('peppers.png');

YCbCr = rgb2ycbcr(A);

YCbCr = double(YCbCr);

Y = YCbCr(:,:,1);

Cb = YCbCr(:,:,2);

Cr = YCbCr(:,:,3);

B = blkproc(Y, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D(:,:,1) = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

B = blkproc(Cb, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D(:,:,2) = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

B = blkproc(Cr, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D(:,:,3) = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

RBG = ycbcr2rgb(uint8(D));

figure, imshow(uint8(D)), figure, imshow(RBG);

2)DCT and quantization on every channel using the 4:2:0 chroma sub-sampling.

Compress in RGB format

Compress in YCbCr format

Matlab Code : image compression and decompression

T = dctmtx(8);

Mask=[ 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ];

A = imread('peppers.png');

YCbCr = rgb2ycbcr(A);

YCbCr = double(YCbCr);

Y = YCbCr(:,:,1);

Cb = YCbCr(:,:,2);

Cr = YCbCr(:,:,3);

Cb = imresize(Cb,0.5);

Cr = imresize(Cr,0.5);

B = blkproc(Y, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D(:,:,1) = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

B = blkproc(Cb, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D(:,:,2) =imresize(blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T),2);

B = blkproc(Cr, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',Mask);

D(:,:,3) =imresize(blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T),2);

RBG = ycbcr2rgb(uint8(D));

figure, imshow(uint8(D)), figure, imshow(RBG);

Comparing the DCT and quantization images in RGB and YCbCr without sub-sampling with the DCT and quantization images with 4:2:0 chroma sub-sampling, there is no difference between them. This is because, the human eye is less sensitive towards Cb and Cr compare to Y, luminance. Even the Cb and Cr is reduced, there are no visible difference the human eye can detect.

3) simple function that takes an image and a mask as the input, perform compression and decompression on the image

function [disp,snr]=codec_snr(file_name,mask)

clear D

A = imread(file_name);

T = dctmtx(8);

if isgray(A)

A = double(A);

B = blkproc(A, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',mask);

D = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

disp = uint8(D);

elseif isrgb(A)

YCbCr = rgb2ycbcr(A);

YCbCr = double(YCbCr);

Y = YCbCr(:,:,1);

Cb = imresize(YCbCr(:,:,2),0.5);

Cr = imresize(YCbCr(:,:,3),0.5);

B = blkproc(Y, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',mask);

D(:,:,1) = blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T);

B = blkproc(Cb, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',mask);

D(:,:,2) =imresize(blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T),2);

B = blkproc(Cr, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T, T');

C = blkproc(B,[8 8], 'P1.*x',mask);

D(:,:,3) =imresize(blkproc(C, [8 8], 'P1*x*P2', T', T),2);

disp = ycbcr2rgb(uint8(D));

end

A = imread(file_name);

sx = double(A).^2;

sd = (double(A)-double(disp)).^2;

snr = 10*log10(mean(sx(:))/mean(sd(:)));

figure('Position',[8 8 1000 500]),subplot(1,2,1),imshow(A);

text(0,0,'Before','HorizontalAlignment','center', 'BackgroundColor',[1 1 1]);

subplot(1,2,2), imshow(disp);

text(0,0,'After','HorizontalAlignment','center', 'BackgroundColor',[1 1 1]);

Discussion:

1.In this experiment, we are finding out how does the image compression works using DCT and quantization and sub-sampling method and how all these affect the quality of the images.

2. JPEG is an effective scheme for compressing photographic image as it reduces information of the image while maintaining image quality. It takes out information that is less sensitive to the human eye thus reducing the size of the file image. By using the right quantization scheme, image quality is preserved.

3. Compression efficiency = (file size of compressed image)/ (file size of original image)

4. Compressed image is stored as quantized DCT coefficients are a suitable approach. The human eye is sensitive to see differences in brightness in large area, but less sensitive to the strength of high frequency brightness variation. The DCT and quantization is used reduce the higher frequency components while avoid losing image quality.

5. Low frequency is important follow by medium and follow by high frequency. The low frequency is perceptually important thus, require fine quantization.

6. The effect of reducing the number of DCT coefficients on the compression ratio and the image quality is that, the compression ratio increased but the image quality is reduce if the compression ratio is very high. When the quantization matrix has many elements that reduce a high number of high frequency components to zero, the higher the compression ratio. Due to the high reduction of DCT coefficient, some of the information is lost which causes the image to have block effect and quality is reduced.

8. In this experiment, we learned that DCT and quantization can be used for image compression. Different types of quantization matrix can affect the image compression. Sub-sampling can increase the compression ratio. Certain information can be reduce during compression as our eyes are only sensitive to certain information. Certain frequency is more important than the others and required finer quantization.

In the audio experiment, we are able to observe how a sample sound can be recorded while maintaining it’s quality. We are able to understand how each method work and some of their advantages over another. Speech requirement of good recording is lower than music.

In the image compression experiment we are able to understand how different method of compression works and being applied.

This is Preview only. If you need the solution of this assignment, please send us email with the complete assignment title: ProfessorKamranA@gmail.com

Study Of Developments Of Green Ship Design Engineering Essay

Shipping is the primary means of transport worldwide. We, in Europe, rely on it for goods and travelling from one corner of our continent to the other. Today’s globalised world trade would not be able to function without ships, after all approxi- mately 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water. Considering the staggering percentages of world trade vessels transport (80%), it is remarkable to note that shipping is already the most environmentally friendly mode of transport and that emissions emitted from ships are small (3%). Operational pollution has been reduced to a negligible amount. MARPOL 73/78 is the most important set of international rules dealing with the environment and the mitigation of ships pollution, it has dealt with certain issues. However, there have also been consider- able improvements in the effi ciency of engines, ship hull designs, propulsion, leading to a decrease of emissions and increase of fuel effi ciency. The environmental footprint of shipping has been signifi - cantly improved through inputs from the marine equipment industry, which adopts a holistic approach when looking at the maritime sector. The equipment suppliers are a valued contributor and innovator within the maritime cluster. The shipbuilding sector encompasses the shipyards and the marine equipment manufacturers including service and knowledge providers. The European marine equipment industry is the global leader in propulsion, cargo handling, communication, automation and environmental systems.

The marine equipment sector comprises of all products and services necessary for the operation, building, con- version and maintenance of ships (seagoing and inland waterways). This includes technical services in the fi eld of engineering, installation and commissioning, and lifecycle management of ships. The value of the products, services and systems on board a vessel can exceed 70% (85% for cruise ships) of the value of a ship. The production ranges from fabrication of steel and other basic materials to the development and supply of engines and propulsion systems, cargo handling systems, gen- eral machinery and associated equipment, environmental and safety systems, electronic equipment incorporating sophisticated control systems, advanced telecommuni- cations equipment and IT. Thus the marine equipment industry supports the whole marine value chain and stake- holders: from the port infrastructure and operation to the ship/shore interface, shipbuilding and ship maintenance.

A large part of the improvements in the environmental footprint of shipping is achieved through the efforts of the European marine equipment industry. A major challenge for the industry today is to ‘transfer technology’ from laboratories to ships, in order to reduce harmful emissions and obtain the benefi t to wider soci- ety. Investments in upgrading older ships are necessary to make them ‘greener’ and more effi cient also in view of setting a benchmark for future new-buildings. A short term objective for the marine equipment sector is to be able to improve energy effi ciency of ships by around 30%. In the medium to long term it has been estimated that a ship’s energy effi ciency can be improved by 60%. These ambitious targets can, however, only be achieved by a continuous innovation process and through increased co- operation between the actors within the maritime cluster.

Shipping has proved to be an effi cient mode of transport throughout history: cutting journey times, building larger vessels to carry more goods, and moving to the combustion engine from the age of steam. Ship-owners, in particular European ones, in cooperation with European shipbuilders (yards and marine equipment) have opted for effi cient and high tech products; this is why the European marine equipment sector is now globally one of the most advanced and innovative, although much more can be achieved. There is already technology existing to help mitigate the environmental impacts from ships. The equipment manufacturers have to maintain levels of investment for new tech- nologies, especially in the present economic climate. Future regulation for the ‘greening’ of shipping is likely to be adopted at inter- national level in the very near future. This could provide a benchmark for further innovation and ensures a high level of technical design resulting in better prod- ucts.

The aim of this book is to provide the reader with a look at currently existing green technology and the impact it has on the environment from a neutral stand- point. Further developed it could provide a benchmark for the current capabilities of technology and if integrated onboard vessels show what they could achieve above and beyond current regulatory requirements. If this technology could be integrated in today’s ships then they could become 15-20% greener and cleaner. If there is further demonstration of newly researched and developed technology then a 33%+ eco-friendliness could be achieved ultimately leading to the zero emissions ship in the not too distant future.

There are 7 issues that should be taken into consideration when talking about re- ducing the environmental impact of vessels1:

“Green ship” is a name given to any sea going vessel that contributes towards improving the present environmental condition in some way or the other. The word “green” in “Green Ship” signifies the green cover of the earth, which is unfortunately reducing as a result of the increase of human intervention in environmental activities.

Maritime industry is one of the greatest contributors of the green house effect, a phenomenon that has drastically affected the earth’s natural ecosystem. Thus, as an effort to reduce carbon emissions coming from the maritime industry and also to support the world movement towards eradicating the green house effect, many shipyards around the world have started inculcating special methods and equipments in their ships, which not only helps in minimizing the carbon foot prints but also in increasing the ships efficiency. These environmentally- friendly ships are known as “Green Ships.”

The greatest contributor of environmental pollution on a ship is the ship’s engine room. The diesel engines and other machinery present in the engine room utilize fuel for their working and release carbon dioxide and other poisonous gases in return. The key to reduce this poisonous emission is to improve the design of these machines and also of the ship. The ships should be designed in such a way that it poses least threat to the environment. Thus, better the design, greener is the ship.

A greener and efficiently designed ship can be achieved by

Minimizing the consumption of materials during ship building.

Reducing the usage of energy and toxic materials during ship manufacturing process.

Using efficient machinery

Improving the overall ship design

Reusing of ship’s parts and accessories during ship maintenance.

Hull design and the kind of materials used in making a ship play a very important role towards the overall efficiency of the ship. For e.g., optimization of hull lines of the ship increases the speed of the ship, saves fuel and also improves the economic efficiency.

Green ship technology means using methods that reduce emission and energy consumption during ship construction processes such as hull construction, painting and fitting. Moreover, a green ship should also abide by all the rules and regulations related to environmental protection and conservation. Thus, if it’s a green ship then special attention is provided during its manufacturing and service processes.

As mentioned earlier, improving the marine machinery is yet another method for making a ship green. The marine equipments chosen for a green ship should consume less energy, emit less pollution and have higher efficiency. This can be done by concentrating on technical aspects of machines such as boilers, main engine, generators, air conditioning system, air compressors etc.

A green ship also means using new technologies such as advanced hull and propeller systems, exhaust gas scrubber systems, waste recovery system, exhaust gas recirculation system etc. Apart from this, use of right grade of fuel for a particular engine also reduces carbon emission and fuel consumption. This also results in less routine maintenance, demanding reduced human labor and energy.

Moreover, there are many new technologies that have completely changed the way a ship works, apart from reducing the carbon emission. A few examples of such green technologies are – the electric propulsion system, which uses an electric management system to improve the overall efficiency of the ship while reducing the exhaust; advanced green diesel engines, which consume less fuel, reduce carbon emission and produce least vibration and noise etc.

Thus, there are many methods for making a green ship green. Also, with the continuous increase in global warming, shipyards around the world are making extra efforts, in their own ways, to contribute towards mitigating the rising environmental concern. Therefore, it can be said that until the conditions related to green house effect don’t improve, the concept of “green ships” is here to stay.

Scientists have agreed to the necessity to limit Global Warming to 2 deg. C. A temperature increase of 2-4 deg. C will lead to:

increased droughts in certain areas.

increased precipitation in other areas.

more frequent and violent hurricanes.

A temperature increase of more than 4 deg. C will most likely change the planet as we know it today.

Kyoto Annex I countries have agreed to reduce GHG by 5.2% by 2012 compared with 1990 levels EU has proposed a 20-20-20, i.e. 20% reduction (compared to 1990 levels) by 2020 Scientists suggest a 50% reduction in GHG emissions by 2050 in order to limit Global Warming

to 2 deg. C.

How much CO2 comes from shipping?

• Two recent studies:

• IMO Expert Group on Air Pollution

• 2009 IMO Greenhouse Gas update study.

• Both use 2007 as reference year.

How much CO2 comes from shipping?

Two recent studies:

2007: 1100 mill. t

2020: 1400 mill. t

Shipping accounts for 3-4% of the total anthropogenic* CO2.

(*produced by human activities)

According to BIMCO company/Organization

Shipping emissions Shipping is projected to increase its GHG (CO2) emissions by approx. 25% from 2007 – 2020.

What are the options for shipping to reduce

CO2 emissions?

1. Improve efficiency

2. Reduce trade (slow steaming, lay-up)

3. Market Based Instruments (MBI)

• It was estimated by the IMO Expert Group that fuel efficiency of new ships can be increased in the order of 30-40%.

• Existing ships can gain 10%.

• Slow-steaming is very efficient, but will limit trade.

• Given the predicted growth in shipping, fuel consumption is estimated to increase with 24% - 28% between 2007 and 2020.

• If shipping is required to reduce its emissions, it cannot be done by technical and operational measures alone without disrupting world trade

• Market Based Instruments (MBI) will need to be applied in the form of Emission Trading or Fuel Levy.

• ETS are part of the Kyoto Protocol and are utilized in several land-based industries.

• EU has developed its own ETS.

• Aviation and Shipping were exempted from regulation by the Kyoto Protocol.

• In July 2008 the EU Parliament decided to include Aviation in the EU ETS.

• Several EU MEPs have expressed a need of also including Shipping in the EU ETS.

• IMO discussed a proposal for the establishment of a Global Shipping ETS at MEPC 59 in July 2009.

During 2009, the partners of Green Ship of the Future decided to work together on a concept study of so-called ‘low emission ships’. The purpose of the study was to investigate the possible overall emission reductions when the various available technologies from the Green Ship of the Future project were implemented already during the design phase of a new ship.

Studies were carried out for two different ship types, an 8,500 TEU container vessel and a 35,000 DWT handy size bulk carrier. The basis for the container vessel was a A-Type vessel from Odense Steel Shipyard, while the basis for the bulk carrier was a Seahorse 35 bulk carrier from Grontmij|CarlBro with a capacity of 35,000 TDW.

In the concept studies, only available and proven ‘green’ technologies were used, which meant that it was possible to build the ships as specified and documented by the two task-leading companies of the concept studies, Odense Steel Shipyard and Grontmij | Carl Bro.

The concept studies were carried out to benchmark the new technologies in relation to the goal of Green Ship of the Future (reduction of exhaust gas emissions) and in relation to the coming international regulations on NOX and SOX emissions and most probably also CO2 emissions by introduction of the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) for new ships.

Designing a ship is a very complex process because many aspects and constraints have to be taken into account simultaneously. Very often demands interfere with each other in a negative way so that by fulfilling one demand, another demand cannot be fulfilled or is even counteracted.

This interference means that it is not always possible just to accumulate the savings from each individual technology to get the total possible saving or reduction. In the present summary, focus has been on the following technologies:

Sulphur scrubber system

Liquefied natural gas as fuel

Advanced hull paint

Waste heat recovery (WHR)

Water in fuel system (WIF)

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

Other main engine technologies

Optimization of pump and cooling water systems

Advanced rudder and propeller designs

Speed nozzle

To ensure that the two concept ships fulfil the relevant Class regulations, all calculations and drawings have been approved by Lloyds Register, and each ship has thus been given a Class Notation.

A well-designed propeller and rudder system can save up to approximately 4% of the fuel oil consumption. Such a system could be a modern propeller combined with an asymmetric rudder and a so-called Costa Bulb.

With new propeller design methods modern propellers becomes more and more efficient. The Costa Bulb creates a smoother slipstream from the propeller to the rudder. With an asymmetric rudder, the rotational energy from the propeller is utilised more efficient compared to a conventional rudder.

Normally, nozzles are used to improve the bollard pull on tugs, supply vessels, fishing boats and many other vessels which need high pulling power at low speed.

This new kind of nozzle, called a speed nozzle, is developed to improve the propulsion power at service speed. Using the new speed nozzle concept has a saving potential of approximately 5%.

One way to fulfil the future regulations on sulphur emissions is to install an exhaust gas scrubber. This scrubber system use water to wash the sulphur out of the exhaust gas. Measurements have shown that SOx emissions are reduced with up to 98%. It is not only the sulphur which is reduced, also the content of harmful particles are reduced by approximately 80%.

Normally, the electrical power in harbour condition is supplied by using auxiliary engines running on heavy fuel or marine diesel. By using auxiliary engines running on LNG (liquefied natural gas) instead of conventional fuel, significant emission reductions can be achieved.

Emission reductions in the magnitude of approximately 20% on CO2, approximately 35% on NOx and 100% on SOx are the potential of switching from diesel to LNG.

The choice of the right hull paint is essential to keep the resistance at a minimum. Modern anti-fouling hull paint with a low water friction has a fuel saving potential in the region of 3 to 8%.

The reduction of emissions is proportional to the fuel savings.

The waste heat recovery system utilises the heat in the exhaust gas from the main engine. The exhaust gas contains a lot of heat energy which can be transformed into steam. The steam can then be used for heating of the accommodation, cargo areas and fuel oil. The steam can also be used for power generation in a turbo generator. Depending on the configuration, a waste heat recovery system can reduce the fuel consumption by 7 – 14 %.

The formation of NOx is dependent of the temperature in the cylinder liner. By lowering the temperature the NOx emissions are also lowered. By adding water to the fuel before injection, the temperature in the cylinder will be lowered. This will result in a reduction of NOX by 30-35%.

The formation of NOX emissions can be reduced by lowering the temperature in the cylinder liner of the main engine. One way of lowering the temperature is to recirculate some of the exhaust gas. Some of the exhaust gas is mixed with the scavenge air so that the oxygen content is reduced together with a lower temperature in the combustion chamber. Measurements have shown that this technology have a potential of NOX reductions of approximately 80%.

By using an optimised cooling water system it is possible to save up to 20% of the electrical generated power, corresponding to approximately 1.5% reduction of the total fuel consumption. Studies show that the resistance in the cooling water system often can be reduced. When the resistance is reduced smaller pumps can be used and thereby saving up to approximately 90% of the power needed for pumps.

’Green Ship of the Future’ is a Danish joint industry project for innovation and demonstration of technologies and methods that makes shipping more environmental friendly.

With respect to airborne emission the aim of the project is

to provide the necessary technologies and operational

means to reduce emissions as follows for new buildings:

30 % reduction of CO2 emissions

90 % reduction of NOx emissions

90 % reduction of SOx emissions

Turbo charging with variable nozzle rings results in high efficiency in a wider load range compared to traditional turbo chargers, especially at low engine loads, i.e. low speeds. Together with Maersk ABB has installed the new A100 VTG turbo charger with variable nozzle onboard Alexander Maersk. The system are currently undergoing tests but initial conclusions are very positive. Next stage for turbocharging is with two-stage turbo charging, which is currently being developed by ABB.

Optimisation of WHR system in close cooperation with partners. Determination of vessel operation profile and optimisation of engine for improved exhaust gas data. Installation of new exhaust gas fired boiler, turbo generator (steam/gas turbine and generator). Optimisation of WHR system given the available space constraints. Maersk is currently installing WHR on a wide range of vessels based upon the GSF project.

Re-design pump & auxiliary systems with a focus on power consumption. Introduce automated systems that continuously control the power demand.

In two projects, optimised control algorithms for Reefer systems (joint project with Lodam A/S) and for general High Temperature (HT) and low

temperature (LT) onboard refrigeration systems are being developed by Aalborg University. The latter system is designed for a Maersk newbuilding, and the effect is documented by means of advanced simulations. Potential: The project is still at an early stage, but preliminary results indicate significant energy savings, possibly as much as 45% (rough estimate)

GreenSteam is a new energy saving system for ships, providing reduction in energy consumption by adjusting ship trim and power. Based on readings from multiple sensors over a period of time, the relations between

the dynamically changing conditions and the energy requirements are mapped and analysed into a mathematical model. This model is used for onboard guidance to the crew as regards optimum trim and power. Fuel savings of at least 2.5% have been demonstrated onboard a product tanker owned by DS NORDEN A/S. The system will

be installed on 4 or more new NORDEN vessels during 2010.

The air resistance of a Bulk Carrier is approximately 5-8 percent of the total resistance. By advanced wind tunnel studies and optimization of the superstructure the air resistance will be lowered to a minimum. The following steps is included in the project:

• Wind Tunnel test of existing design.

• Superstructure optimization (eg. Crane, forecastle, accommodation –

Rounded shapes, elimination of recirculation zones etc.)

• The future bulk carrier where all traditions are reconsidered…

Based upon the results investigations might continue on other vessel types.

SeaTrim is a trim optimisation application based on model test results of a large matrix of different combinations of draught, trim and speed. SeaTrend is a system for performance monitoring, using operational data from the ship. With SeaTrim & SeaTrend installed onboard the six L-Class chemical tankers owned operated by Nordic tankers, it is the aim of the project to demonstrate the effect of the tools in terms of:

Ability to determine hull and propeller fouling and trends.

Ability to guide the crew as regards to optimum trim.

MAN Diesel’s propulsion division in Frederikshavn has developed a new nozzle, which can enhance the performance for many types of vessels. Where existing nozzles designs have primarily been applied to ships that requires high thrust at low ship speeds, the new product is intended for vessels with a higher service speed i.e. tankers, bulkers, PSVs etc. The new nozzle will be tested in model scale on a tanker that is operated by Nordic Tankers. The test will be carried out in the towing tank at FORCE Technology.

HEMPEL and FORCE Technology has made an official agreement to monitor all new applications of HEMPASIL X3 with the SeaTrend performance monitoring software. Currently a number of vessels have been applied with both X3 paint and SeaTrend

software. Based on the experience from the project the effect of the newest generation of silicone paints will be documented in real service.

The advanced version is specially suited for Short Sea Shipping and will allow the officers to plan their route taking into account ETA, weather (wind, waves and current), and shallow waters. With highly detailed weather prognoses of the North Sea and Baltic Sea (supplied by DMI) and with a GPS link, SeaPlanner continuously monitors and guides the Master on the optimum speed and heading. With this project DFDS and FORCE Technology will show the potential of the SeaPlanner based upon the experience gained through the initial operation. The system is currently installed on 7 vessels and will be installed on additional 15 vessels in spring 2010.

‘Lab on a ship’ (LOAS) is a new and innovative product by NanoNord. During bunkering LOAS provides online measurements of the elements of the bunker oil, lube oil, cylinder oil etc. In addition the system offers online measurements of exhaust gas emissions of NOx and SOx. With the LOAS system, the sulphur content of both the bunker oil and the exhaust emissions are measured and documented which is important for the verification of the MARPOL Annex IV regulations. LOAS is installed onboard two Bulk Carriers owned by Lauritzen Bulkers, and the project aims at demonstrating the applicability of the system.

The challenge was to take an existing modern design and evaluate the technologies suitable and to generate a picture of the improved performance of the vessel. We have evaluated two different vessel types. We have not changed the hull form, the DWT or other main parameters.

• Speed nozzle/optimized propeller

• Twisted spade rudder with Costa bulb

• Water in fuel (WIF)

• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

• Waste Heat Recovery system (WHR)

• Exhaust Gas Scrubber

• Ducted/direct air intake for main engine

• Optimised coolers and cooling pumps

• Auxiliary engine operation on marine diesel oil (MDO)

• High capacity fresh water generator.

Extra costs 5 mill USD (Corresponds to approx 20% of newbuilding costs)

8500 TEU container vessel, optimised with:

Water in Fuel technology (WIF)

Exhaust gas recycling (EGR)

Waste heat recovery exhaust boilers

Power and Steam turbine technology

Exhaust gas Scrubber

Extra costs 10 mill Euro (Corresponds to approx 10% of newbuilding costs)

With respect to NOx and SOx it is possible to reach the goals.

Reducing NOx and SOx will in some cases cost increased CO2 emission.

With respect to CO2 the study shows that we still need to work with

technical solutions and operation to meet goal.

Further reduction in CO2 must be obtained through continued efforts to

reduce vessel resistance, optimised operation (slow steaming), more

effective propulsion systems, more fuel efficient engines, alternative

fuel (LNG, Biofuel etc.) and addition of alternative green means of

propulsion (fuel cells, wind, solar etc.) etc.

Further reductions in CO2 will also reduce NOx and SOx emissions.

Retrofit challenges.

The challenge and objective of “The Green Ship of the Future” initiative is to reduce CO2 emissions by around 30 per cent and nitric and sulphuric oxides by 90 per cent. This initiative is using both familiar and new technologies. Green Ship of the Future is primarily focusing on the large, two-stroke engines of the type that are used in large ocean-going container ships and tankers.

The project was launched in 2008 by MAN Diesel & Turbo in conjunction with the A.P. Møller-Mærsk Group Danish shipping firm, Odense Steel Shipyard and Aalborg Industries. The initiative’s primary objective is to highlight and develop new technologies aimed at achieving a significant reduction in marine emissions. The project now has some 15 partners, including shipping companies, their suppliers and several Danish universities.

In the summer of 2009, the initiative won the International Environmental Award from Sustainable Shipping for being the most environmentally friendly transport initiative. Sustainable Shipping is one of the leading organisations championing the sustainable use of our seas and oceans. Panel of judges member Dr. Simon Walmsley from the World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) said: “If we want to safeguard the survival of our planet, we need to change our behaviour. No branch of industry can afford to neglect these essential changes.”

Shipping is an extremely eco-friendly form of transport, but with the Green Ship of the Future initiative, we are making even greater efforts to protect the climate and the environment. Together with our partners, we want to help contribute towards the development of products that are even more eco-friendly and will reduce emissions further.

MAN Diesel & Turbo is heading or participating in the following sub-projects arising from the Green Ship of the Future initiative:

• Exhaust Gas Scrubbers

• Lower Ship Speeds within certifications

• Auto-tuning of MAN Diesel & Turbo engines

• Emission reduction using exhaust gas recirculation

• Waste heat recovery

Green Technology

Overview of green and cost-saving technology from Aalborg Industries.

As market leading manufacturer of highly efficient and environmentally friendly equipment for the maritime market such as marine boilers and heat exchangers, thermal fluid systems and inert gas systems, the Aalborg Industries Group develops new green solutions to support our customers in building and operating their commercial fleet to the highest standard for low environmental impact.

Waste Heat Recovery

New and more efficient exhaust gas Waste Heat Recovery systems utilizing the heat in the exhaust after diesel engines or gas turbines to further improve the total efficiency of the propulsion plant, thereby reducing fuel consumption.

M.E. Exhaust gas scrubbers

Exhaust gas scrubber system after diesel Main Engines significantly reducing the sulphur oxide (SOx) emission as well as emission of particles.

Economizer after aux. engines

For new installations or retrofit, an efficient exhaust gas economizer utilizing the heat in the exhaust gas from the auxiliary engines during port stays will significantly reduce the oil consumption for the oil-fired boiler.

Ballast water treatment

In a joint venture with Aquaworx, Germany, Aalborg Industries will develop ballast water treatment equipment meeting IMO regulations to prevent, minimize and ultimately eliminate the transfer of harmful aquaticorganisms and pathogens.

Superheater for aux. boilers

Installing a superheater on an auxiliary boiler will increase the efficiency of the cargo pump turbine substantially and reduce the fuel consumption and emissions during discharge operation on crude oil carriers.

MGO burner modification

Aalborg Industries is developing a solution to facilitate safe and easy switching between fuels from HFO to MGO or MDO and back as required in ports in Europe and USA. Firing with MGO in ports is required to limit emissions of sulphur oxides (SOx) as per IMO, US and EU regulations.

Cooling system for LNG

Aalborg Industries Inert Gas Systems has developed a new cooling system for LNG carriers using a mere 10% of the usual quantity of Freon (which is a known greenhouse gas) while also using the new, environmentally friendly Freon type.

Electrical Steam Generation

Connected to the auxiliary steam boiler, the VESTA™ EH-S heater is for certain ship types replacing or acting as a Donkey boiler and an alternative to conversion of boilers for MGO operation. The VESTA™ EH-S heater complies with European standards and is designed for easy approval by the classification societies.

Waste heat recovery economizer

after auxiliary engines

In the coming years, the marine industry and shipowners face big challenges as new environmental legislations have special focus on the reduction of emissions from fossil fuels. Therefore Aalborg Industries has developed an efficient exhaust gas economizer utilizing the heat in the exhaust gas from the auxiliary engines during port stays, which will significantly reduce the oil consumption for the oil-fired boiler.

For several decades, we have installed WHR systems after the ship’s main engines and these units are to a large extend able to meet the vessels steam requirement during seagoing operation and for some installations also able to assist with the generation of electrical power.

The waste heat from the auxiliary engines has not been considered in the past, but it actually contains a large energy amount which can be utilized to assist with the steam requirements mainly during port stays, but for some vessels also during seagoing operation.

The WHR concept has been specially developed as a customized solution with special focus on energy generation compared to return of investment and payback time can be reduced to 7 months for a complete WHR boiler system, accessories and installation onboard the ship. The normal payback time will be approximately 1 to 1½ year depending on the number of days, the produced steam can be utilized (offset against of the steam requirement from the oil fired boiler) and the redundancy requirements.

We offer a concept based on well-proven and innovative solutions to ensure the best operation conditions and optimal return of investment. The design of the heating surface of the WHR boiler is the result of an enhancement of our wellproven technologies with a small footprint and the lowest possible weight to output ration.

To ensure the most advantageous design, the WHR boiler concept will be specially tailored to the individual ship and engine design with due consideration of existing uptake back pressure etc. The concept comes in two designs;

One that requires a steam space in another boiler (e.g. in an existing auxiliary boiler) and

One that has its own steam space.

Able to supply or support the steam demand during port stay

Cost of steam production (energy) is nearly free

Financially sound investment with very short payback time

Adds a “green” profile to the ship

Lower emission tax when finally agreed

Less maintenance and lower operating costs for the oil-fired boiler

Exhaust Gas Scrubbers

Dimensions/weight are indicative figures only and subject to change.

This is Preview only. If you need the solution of this assignment, please send us email with the complete assignment title: ProfessorKamranA@gmail.com

Study The Effect Of Spoilers On Wings Engineering Essay

While travelling from an aircraft it must have been observed many a times that during a flight and after touchdown of aircraft a part of the wing in between the leading and trailing edges of the wing is deployed. This part of the wing is called the spoilers. Especially after the touchdown, it can clearly be observed that the spoilers are extended upward into the airflow.

Spoilers as the name itself explains, it means to spoil. The spoilers, spoils the airflow over a wing and decreases the lift of an aircraft. Here by spoiling the airflow means to disturb the airflow and decreasing the lift by increasing the drag. Spoilers can be used to slow an aircraft, or to make an aircraft descend, if they are deployed on both wings. Spoilers are also used to generate a rolling motion for an aircraft, if they are deployed on only one wing. Spoilers are used for multipurpose; they are sometimes used when descending from cruise altitudes to assist the aircraft in descending to lower altitudes without picking up speed.

An increased rate of descent could also be achieved by lowering the nose of an aircraft, but this would result in an excessive landing speed. However, when spoilers are used along with the thrust reversers they also help in considerably decreasing the runway distance required by an aircraft to land safely and enable the approach to be made at a safe speed for landing. In a descent without spoilers, air speed is increased and the engine will be at low power, producing less heat than normal. The engine may cool too rapidly, resulting in stuck valves, cracked cylinders or other problems. Spoilers alleviate the situation by allowing the aircraft to descend at a desired rate while letting the engine run at a power setting that keeps it from cooling too quickly.

Spoilers are hinged, rectangular plate-like structures installed flush along the top of an aircraft wing, just forward of the flaps. When the pilot activates the spoilers, the plates pivot up on their center hinge fittings into the airstream. By doing so, the spoiler creates a carefully controlled stall over the portion of the wing behind it, greatly reducing the lift of that wing section, as a result, the airflow over the wing is disturbed (spoiled) and lift is decreased with the increment in the drag. This can be observed from fig.1 below.

Fig. 2.1: Spoilers on a wing.

The spoilers works in different conditions of the flight as per desirable by the pilot. All these conditions are discussed in the underwritten sections of the report.

On landing, however, the spoilers are nearly always used at full effect to assist in slowing the aircraft. The increase in form drag created by the spoilers directly assists the braking effect. However, the real gain comes as the spoilers cause a dramatic loss of lift and hence the weight of the aircraft is transferred from the wings to the undercarriage, allowing the wheels to be mechanically braked with much less chance of skidding.

Fig.2.2: Spoilers in action

In the above Fig.1.2 we can clearly observe the disturbance i.e. the turbulence that is caused in the flow when the spoilers are deployed. This turbulence which is created in the flow is the major cause for decrement in lift along with the increase in the drag.

The spoilers may also be differentially operated to provide roll control. On landing, however, the spoilers are nearly always used at full effect to assist in slowing the aircraft. The increase in form drag created by the spoilers directly assists the braking effect. However, the real gain comes as the spoilers cause a dramatic loss of lift and hence the weight of the aircraft is transferred from the wings to the undercarriage, allowing the wheels to be mechanically braked with much less chance of skidding. Reverse thrust is also often used to help slow the aircraft on landing. The spoilers may also be differentially operated to provide roll control.

The spoilers are used in multiple conditions such as:

When the pilot deploys the spoilers, the plates flip up into the air stream. The flow over the wing is disturbed by the spoiler, the drag acting on the wing is increased, and thus as a result lift is decreased. During the mid air i.e. when an aircraft is airborne and spoilers are deployed by the pilot the aircraft descend from cruise altitudes to assist the aircraft in descending to lower altitudes without picking up speed. This is very helpful in decreasing the altitude of the aircraft, without the use of propulsive or any other power.

Fig.3.1: Spoiler up position.

On landing, however, the spoilers are nearly always used at full effect to assist in slowing down the aircraft. The increase in form drag created by the spoilers directly assists the braking effect. However, a major advantage is that the spoilers cause a dramatic loss of lift and hence the weight of the aircraft is transferred from the wings to the undercarriage, allowing the wheels to be mechanically braked with much less chance of skidding. By the use of spoilers at the time of landing after touchdown gives efficiency to the brakes. Reverse thrust is also often used to help slow the aircraft on landing along with the spoilers (consider Fig.3.2).

By use of spoilers along with thrust reversers effectively stops the aircraft on landing and also helps in reducing the required ground distance for landing.

Fig.3.2: Spoilers being used after touchdown.

They are useful on gliders to vary the lift-to-drag ratio for altitude control and on airliners on landing to reduce lift quickly to prevent the airplane from bouncing into the air. During the time of landing the aircrafts needs to have least lift, if there is a little misbalance and lift is produced on the wing then instead of landing the aircraft will bounce back in the air. To avoid this situation spoilers are very helpful in dumping the lift acting on the aircraft.

A single spoiler is used to bank the aircraft; to cause one wing tip to move up and the other wing tip to move down. The banking creates an unbalanced side force component of the wing lift force which causes the aircraft's flight path to curve.

Fig.3.3: Roll motion caused by spoilers.

If the airplane's right wing spoiler is deployed, while the left wing spoiler is stored flat against the wing surface (as viewed from the rear end of airplane) consider Fig.3.3. The flow over the right wing will be disturbed by the spoiler, the drag of this wing will be increased, and the lift will decrease relative to the left wing. The lift force is applied at the center of pressure of the segment of the wing containing the spoiler which in result creates a torque about the center of gravity. The net torque causes the aircraft to rotate about its center of gravity.

The resulting motion will roll the aircraft to the right (clockwise) as viewed from the rear. If the pilot reverses the spoiler deflections (right spoiler flat and left spoiler up) the aircraft will roll in the opposite direction.

The aircraft rolls because one aileron is deflected downward while the other is deflected upward. Lift increases on the wing with the downward-deflected aileron because the deflection effectively increases the camber of that portion of the wing. Conversely, lift decreases on the wing with the upward-deflected aileron since the camber is decreased. The result of this difference in lift is that the wing with more lift rolls upward to create the desired rolling motion. Now, Consider Fig.3.4.

Fig.3.4: Adverse Yaw.

Unfortunately, drag is also affected by this aileron deflection. The induced drag and profile drag, are increased when ailerons are deployed. Thus, the wing on which the aileron is deflected downward to generate more lift also experiences more induced drag than the other wing. The profile drag increases on both wings when the ailerons are deflected, but the increase is equal. However, the induced drag on each side is not equal, and a larger total drag force exists on the wing with the down aileron. This difference in drag creates a yawing motion in the opposite direction of the roll. Since the yaw motion partially counteracts the desired roll motion, we call this effect adverse yaw.

When used in coordination with ailerons, a spoiler can be used to reduce the lift and increase the profile drag on the wing with the up aileron. As a result, the wing with the down aileron experiences a large increase in lift and a small increase in drag while the wing with the up aileron experiences a large decrease in lift and a large increase in drag. These effects combine to create the desired roll motion and a complimenting yaw motion that is called proverse yaw.

By the use of spoilers a rapid descents may be made without having to reduce power, thereby maintaining engine temperatures at a comfortable level, and eliminating the risk of engine "shock cooling." In time of a descent without spoilers, i.e. by simply reducing the throttle the air speed is increased and the engine will be at low power, producing less heat than in normal. Thus as a result the engine may cool too rapidly, resulting problems such as, stuck valves, cracked cylinders or other problems. Spoilers alleviate the situation by allowing the aircraft to descend at a desired rate while letting the engine to run at a power setting that keeps it from cooling too quickly.

Wood is used to make the solid wing as per the coordinates; Steel plate is used to show the spoiler on the wing, nuts and bolts.

The experiment was conducted in the aerodynamics lab at the university. Wind tunnel is used for the testing of solid wing. This is a low speed and low turbulence wind tunnel. The experiment was performed at tunnel velocity of 30m/s. Lift and drag on the solid wing was calculated before and after the spoilers were deployed.

A NACA 0015 symmetrical airfoil with a 25% thickness to chord ratio was analysed to determine the lift and drag. The chord of the airfoil is 15 cm; using the NACA 0015 symmetric airfoil coordinates the solid wing was made. The coordinates of NACA 0015 are:

0.95

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.075

0.05

0.025

0.0125

0.025

0.05

0.075

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.95

0.0012

0.01027

0.01867

0.0332

0.0448

0.0532

0.05827

0.06

0.05827

0.05293

0.04867

0.0424

0.03813

0.03267

0.02453

0.01813

-0.01813

-0.02453

-0.03267

-0.03813

-0.0424

-0.04867

-0.05293

-0.05827

-0.06

-0.05827

-0.0532

-0.0448

-0.0332

-0.01867

-0.01027

-0.0012

Fig.4.1: NACA 0015 airfoil

The wind tunnel testing of solid wing was performed, first with normal condition i.e. when spoilers are not deployed. The following results are:

0°

0.164 N

0.377 N

5°

20.23 N

0.725 N

10°

33.02 N

1.54 N

15°

16.2 N

6.525 N

Now, for the second case i.e. when the spoiler is deployed. The values obtained are:

0°

-0.034 N

0.549 N

5°

12.94 N

6.45 N

10°

24.05 N

13.37 N

15°

9.85 N

20.58 N

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Study Of Compressive Strength Of Concrete Engineering Essay

This research study comprises of concrete cubes made with Ordinary Portland Cement and with different configurations of fly ash by replacing cement and fine aggregate. To achieve the aim of this study, total 81 concrete cubes were cast. Among 81 cubes, 9 cubes were made with normal concrete, 36 cubes were made by replacing 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of fine aggregate with fly ash and 36 cubes were made by replacing 10%, 25%, 50%, and 75% of cement with fly ash. The cubes were 6" x 6" in cross-section, and the mix design was aimed for 5000 psi. After proper curing of all 81 cubes, they were tested at 3, 7 and 28 days curing age. The cubes were tested in Forney Universal Testing Machine in the Concrete Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department, Mehran University Jamshoro. By analyzing the test results of all the concrete cubes, the following main findings have been drawn.

The compressive strength of concrete cubes made by replacing 100 % fine aggregate by fly ash was higher than the concrete cubes made with Ordinary Portland Cement at all 3, 7 and 28 days curing ages. On the other hand, the compressive strength of concrete cubes made by replacing 10 % and 25 % cement by fly ash were slightly lower than the concrete cubes made with Ordinary Portland Cement at all curing ages, whereas the compressive strength of concrete cubes made by replacing 50 % and 75 % of cement by fly ash were quite lower than the concrete cubes made with Ordinary Portland Cement at all curing ages.

Key Words: Ordinary Portland Cement, Fine Aggregate, Fly Ash, Compressive strength of Concrete.

Concrete is a composite material which is being used in variety of structures. More commonly cement, steel bars as well as coarse and fine aggregates are to be transported from distant places to the site which is quite expensive. Therefore the aggregates are preferably to be used from whatever is available locally.

Fly ash (also known as a Coal Combustion By-Product) is the finely divided mineral residue resulting from the combustion of powdered coal in electric generating plants. Large quantities of industrial by-products are produced every year. These waste by-products must be effectively disposed to eliminate air, soil, and surface, as well as ground water pollution at added cost to the industry and thus to the society [1- 3].

Fly ash is generally used as partial replacement of Portland Cement and/or fine aggregate, an expensive and energy intensive material. Therefore use of fly ash leads to considerable saving in cost and energy consumption. Utilization of increased volumes of fly ash in concrete will lead to conservation of energy and natural resources. Bulk quantities of some industrial by-products such as fly ash, bottom ash and slag have been used as aggregates for concrete, road embankment as well as sub base construction, but such bulk uses represents low value applications. On the other hand, their use as mineral admixtures in cement and concrete due to their pozzolanic and cementitious properties represents high value applications. [4]

Addition of finely divided pozzolanic and cementitious materials like fly ash, can affect the properties of cement mortar/concrete both in fresh and hardened state. In fresh or plastic state, mix proportions, water requirements for specified consistency, setting characteristics, workability, and heat of hydration are some of the properties influenced by mineral admixtures. In the hardened state, the rate of strength development and ultimate strength, permeability, durability against frost attack, sulfate attack, alkali-silica reaction, carbonation, and resistance to thermal cracking are significantly affected with the incorporation of mineral admixtures in cement concrete. Over the years, extensive research has been conducted all over the world to investigate the influence of fly ash on the strength of plain cement concrete. In this study the fly ash produced at Lakhra Coal Power Plant is used as a replacement of cement / fine aggregate, in order to investigate its effects on the strength of concrete.

With the boom in population and industrial growth, the need for power has increased manifold. It has been observed that the power generation plants running through coal fuel are producing huge amount of ashes, which is being treated as waste. If this waste is left unutilized, it can pollute various phases of human environment like air, food, land, shelter and water [5]. However, if this waste is disposed of properly, it can be a new source of useful material.

Researchers have been attempting to convert this waste into the wealth by exploring viable avenues for use of fly ash. It has been reported that this waste stuff is being used as fine aggregate in concrete construction and higher strengths are being achieved [5]. This will inevitably reduce the cement content, which is one of the expensive item in concrete construction. Hence the use of fly ash as a construction material in those areas where it is cheaply available would be a feasible step in construction industry rather than transporting standard hill sand from a far distant source.

It is reported that fly ash has cementitious properties; hence fly ash is an inexpensive replacement for various contents of concrete construction. When fly ash is employed with portland cement, then hydrated lime combines with the fly ash forming stable cementitious compound which contributes strength. [2, 10].

Fly ash refers to the finely divided material which is added to obtain specific engineering properties of cement mortar and concrete. The other, equally important, objective of using fly ash in cement concrete include economic benefits and environmentally safe recycling of waste by products. Fly ash is generally finer than Portland Cement. Because of its fineness, pozzolanic properties and self- cementitious nature, it is widely accepted as mineral admixture in mortar and concrete [4].

Fly ash in concrete is used to enhance the performance of concrete. The various advantages of fly ash in concrete largely depend on mix proportions, mixing procedure and field conditions. Although fly ash creates environmental problems, never the less it improves the quality of concrete. It also lowers the heat of hydration. Fly ash increases strength of concrete, reduces the permeability and corrosion of reinforcing steel, increases sulphate attack resistance and reduces alkali-aggregate reaction [10].

Lakhra Power Plant is very near to Jamshoro and Hyderabad and is the only coal fuel powered plant in Pakistan. It is about 35 km form Jamshoro and 55 km from Hyderabad. Lakhra coal field encompasses an area of 250 square kilometers. Fly ash produced through this power plant is very fine powder recovered from gases created by coal fired electric power generation. This power plant produces about 2 million tons of fly ash annually, which is being dumped like a land fill. It has been reported that dumped fly ash has occupied huge considerable space of land in the vicinity of power plant which has created environmental problem to the inhabitants who are living in this area. This alarms researchers to consume this land fill fly ash which is producing great environmental impact in the surrounding society.

There may be differences in the fly ash from one plant to another, day-to-day variations in the fly ash from a given power plant are usually quite predictable, provided plant operation and coal source remain constant. The effective utilization of fly ash in concrete requires adequate knowledge of characteristics of fly ash defined by its physical, chemical and mineralogical properties.

The various materials used in concrete mix are given in Table 1.

Cement

Dada Bhai Cement Factory

Fine Aggregatge

Bolhari sand

Coarse Aggregatge

Petaro crushing plant

Fly ash

Lakhra Power Plant

Water

Concrete laboratory, Civil Engineering Department

3.2 Properties of Materials used in Concrete mix

Standard test procedure as prescribed by ASTM C128-93 was used for this test. The specific gravity of fine aggregate used in this research study was found to be 2.61.

Standard test procedure as prescribed by BS: 812 Part 107: (Draft) and ASTM C 127- 93 was used for this test. The specific gravity of coarse aggregate used in this research study was found to be 2.66.

Standard test procedure as prescribed by ASTM C128-93 was used for this test. The specific gravity of Fly ash was found to be 2.54.

Standard test procedure as described in BS 812: Part 107: (Draft) was used for this test. The water absorption of fine aggregate was found to be 1.69 %.

Standard test procedure as described in BS 812: Part 107: (Draft) was used for this test. The water absorption of coarse aggregate was found to be 1.38 %.

Standard test procedure as described in BS 812: Part 107: (Draft) was used for this test. The water absorption of Fly ash was found to be 16.92 %.

Standard test procedure as described in BS 812: Part 2: 1975 and ASTM C 29-91a was used for this test. The unit weight of fine aggregate was found to be 103.47 lb/ft3.

Standard test procedure as described in BS 812: Part 2: 1975 and ASTM C 29-91a was used for this test. The unit weight of coarse aggregate was found to be 98.48 lb/ft3.

Standard test procedure as described in BS 812: Part 2: 1975 and ASTM C 29-91a was used for this test. The unit weight of Fly ash was found to be 44.52 lb/ft3.

The British method of concrete mix design, popularly referred to as the "DoE method", was used for design purpose. After having few trials to check the mix design for the required strength of 5000 psi, the ratio was used as: 1 : 1.25 : 2.50 @ 0.39 w/c ratio.

In this research study total 81 concrete cubes were cast. Among 81 cubes, 9 cubes were made with normal concrete, 36 cubes were made by replacing 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of fine aggregate by fly ash and 36 cubes were made by replacing 10%, 25%, 50%, and 75% of cement by fly ash. The cubes were 6" x 6" in cross-section, and the mix design was aimed for 5000 psi. After proper curing of all 81 cubes, they were tested at 3, 7 and 28 days curing ages. The cubes were tested in Forney Universal Testing Machine in the Concrete Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department Mehran University Jamshoro.

4. TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

After proper curing of all 81 cubes, these were tested at 3, 7 and 28 days curing ages. The cubes were taken out from the water tank and left for surface saturated drying condition. The cubes were then tested in Forney Universal Testing Machine in the Concrete Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department Mehran University Jamshoro. The test results of all the concrete cubes are summarized in Table 2, whereas their graphical presentation is shown in figure 1.

01.

Cubes made with Normal cement concrete

3241

4594

5129

02.

Cubes made by replacing 25% of Fine Aggregate by Fly ash

3033

4287

4896

03.

Cubes made by replacing 50% of Fine Aggregate Fly ash

3128

4381

4975

04.

Cubes made by replacing 75% of Fine Aggregate by Fly ash

3377

4561

5041

05.

Cubes made by replacing 100% of Fine Aggregate by Fly ash

3608

4614

5197

06.

Cubes made by replacing 10% of Cement by Fly ash

3146

4409

4989

07.

Cubes made by replacing 25% of Cement by Fly ash

2925

4428

5076

08.

Cubes made by replacing 50% of Cement by Fly ash

1872

1931

2283

09.

Cubes made by replacing 75% of Cement by Fly ash

1038

1090

1323

The compressive strength of concrete cubes made by replacing 100 % Fine aggregate by Fly ash was higher than the concrete cubes made by Ordinary Portland Cement at all 3, 7 and 28 days curing ages as shown in Figure 1. The compressive strength of concrete cubes made by replacing 75 % of Fine aggregate by Fly ash was higher at 3 days but it was slightly lower than the O.P.C made normal cubes at 7 and 28 days as presented in Figure 2.

The compressive strengths of concrete cubes made by replacing 10 % and 25 % cement by Fly ash were slightly lower than the concrete cubes made by Ordinary Portland Cement at all curing ages. The compressive strengths of concrete cubes made by replacing 50 % and 75 % of cement by Fly ash were quite lower than the concrete cubes made by Ordinary Portland Cement at all curing ages as shown in Figure 3.

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

By analyzing the test results of all the concrete cubes with Ordinary Portland Cement concrete and with different configurations of fly ash made concrete by replacing fine aggregate and Ordinary Portland Cement, the following conclusions have been drawn.

As the compressive strength of concrete cubes, made by replacing 100 % fine aggregate with fly ash is more higher than the concrete cubes, made by using Ordinary Portland Cement and common fine aggregate, therefore the use of fly ash is recommended in plain cement concrete as a replacement of fine aggregate.

As the compressive strength of concrete made by replacing 10% and 25% cement with fly ash is relatively same as made with Ordinary Portland Cement at 7 & 28 days, therefore the use of fly ash as a replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement in plain cement concrete is recommended up to 25 %.

This paper emphasizes on the suitability of fly ash to replace the fine aggregate and cement in plain concrete. Further extensive research is required to use fly ash for design and construction of R.C.C members which may be economical for our construction industry.

The first author is extremely thankful to honorable project supervisor Professor Dr. Ghous Bux Khaskheli, Chairman, Department of Civil Engineering, and Director Post Graduate Studies, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan, for his encouragement and necessary help at each and every stage of this research work.

ASTM C 618-01, “Standard Specifications for Coal Fly ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Concrete”, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 2001.

ACI Committee 116, “Cement and Concrete Terminology”, ACI 116R-90”, American Concrete Institute , Farmington Hills, MI, pp. 46, 1990

ASTM C618-92a., "Standard Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete”, American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.No. 02, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania. 1994

V.S. Rama Chandram (1996), Concrete admixture Hand book Properties, science, and Technology, IInd Edition, pp. 657-680

Memon Amanullah, ”Experimental Study For Utility of Fly Ash of Lakhra Coal Plant as a Structural Concrete Construction Material”, ME Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan. 2004.

Sott, Allan N; Thomas, Micheal DA, “Evaluation of Fly ash from Co-Combustion of Coal and Petroleum Coke for use in Concrete”’, ACI Materials Journal Vol. 104, No. 1, pp. 62-70, Jan-Feb 2007,.

A.Oner, S.Akyuz and R.Yildiz, “An experimental study on strength development of concrete containing fly ash and optimum usage of fly ash in concrete”, Science Direct Cement and Concrete Research 35, pp. 1165-1171, 2005.

Kejin Wang, Alexander Mishulovich and Surendra P.Shah , “Activation and Properies of Cementitios Materials Made with cement-kiln dust and class F fly ash” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, pp. 112-119, January 2007.

Akhtar Naeem Khan, Attaullah Shah and Qaiser Ali , “Use of Fly Ash as cementitious material in Concrete”, Research Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, N.W.F.P University of Engineering & Technology Peshawar, Pakistan, Vol.20, No.1, pp.37-45 Jan-June 2001.

Pathan Amjad “Study of Fly ash made Mortar Concrete”, ME Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan, 2007

Memon, F.A., “Experimental Study of Fly ash of Lakhra Coal Power Plant in RCC Beams”, M.E Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan, 2007.

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United States 2 Study Guide

The Treaty of Fort Laramie
the Treaty, which requires the Sioux to live on
a reservation along the Missouri River.

Dawes Act
a law, which was adopted in 1887, that was intended to
"Americanize" Indians by distributing reservation land
to individual owners.
Homestead Act
a u.s. law passed in 1862, which
supplied 160 acres in the West to any citizen or intended citizens
Who was the head of the family and to cultivate the land for five
years; a law whose passage led to record numbers of American settlers
claim private property that had previously been reserved
Treaty and of the tradition of Native American nomadic residence and
use; the same law enforced in 1889 to encourage individuals
to exercise their rights to private property and develop the Homestead
of the vast government lands.
Grange-
Patrons of husbandry--a social and educational
Organization through which farmers tried to fight
the power of the railroads in the late 19th century.
Bessemer Process-
a cheap and efficient process
for making steel, developed around 1850.
Transcontinental Railroad-
a railway line connects the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States, completed
in 1869.
Interstate commerce act
a law adopted in
in 1887, which established the Federal Government's right to
monitor the railway activities and created a five-Member Interstate
Trade Commission to do this.
vertical integration-
a company's
take over its suppliers and distributors, and transportation
system to gain total control over the quality and cost of their product.
horizontal integration-
merger of companies that make similar products.

Social Darwinism-
. an economic and
Social philosophy — probably based on the biologist Charles
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection — keep as a
system of unfettered competition will ensure the survival of the
strongest.
The American Federation of Labor (AFL)-
n. an Alliance of trade and
Craft unions formed in 1886 ...

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Custom Centric Web Sites Dell Case Study Marketing Essay

When Microsoft launched its first public Web domain in 1994, few companies, let alone consumers, knew anything about the World Wide Web. The retail industry, due to the concept of e-commerce, jumped on the Web more rapidly than the corporate world. Now, however, most corporations have clearly recognized that their previous business model is outdated in terms of the viral world and changed their Web sites and Internet marketing strategies accordingly. As Gerry Brown (2009) of Blor Research states: “The Website for most of us today is the visual online external representation of a company.” When customers meet a CEO, they immediately comment on that organization’s Website. Thus, savvy corporate leaders not only want Web presence, but consistently attractive and relevant sites that offer personalized attention to optimize customer sales conversions, return visits, and loyalty. In short: To compete successfully against other Web enterprises in terms of products/services and, even more importantly, in terms of branding, corporations need to ensure that they adopt a customer-centric business model—whether they are B2B or B2C enterprises. Presently, this customer centrism entails leveraging the latest forms of social communication, such as blogs, social networking and mobile communication, another technical revolution in the making.

Business Model Definition

A business model is a functional plan that creates economic value for a business. It distinctly spells out how an organization can position itself in the value chain to sustain itself and generate revenue (Shafer, Smith, and Linder, 2005). Business models look at a number of different areas, such as innovation, finance and economics, entrepreneurship, operations, and marketing, to decide how a company will best define itself within the parameters of its industry’s marketplace. When the WWW became a reality, e-commerce ventures quickly recognized that exceptional customer service was required to attain higher profitability. The corporate world was much slower in realizing this. Many older companies had already forgotten that their

customers/clients were what had made them successful. Over the years, these organizations became more concerned with cutting costs on the bottom line and increasing revenues—frequently at the consumer’s expense—than with satisfying their customers’ needs.

Custom-Centric Web Sites: Dell Case Study

As billionaire Akira Mori says, “We must continually reinvent ourselves,” and respond to changes with creative new business models. Thus, most corporate CEOs are now mandating that their Web sites be customer-centered. They realize that opportunities online are limitless, but such results necessitate providing a site that customers will rate highly for convenience, efficiency, informative content, technological performance, trustworthiness and general satisfaction in meeting their particular needs (van Duyne, Landay, and Hong, 2007). In his book Direct to Dell (2005), for example, CEO Mike Dell discusses his company’s business model, which is based on direct selling but not with resellers or a retail channel. It adheres to three golden rules: disdain inventory, always listen to the customer, and never sell indirect. Dell targets both potential and present customers who know what they want and how the company can improve to better meet their needs. Dell also places an emphasis on segmentation, asking “how can I target the people who most want our product, so that I’m spending my resources where I know it’s going to pay off best?”

The New Business Model—Mobile Technology

From its first days, the Internet has been in the mode of constant change. Successful online companies also know that they cannot rely on the status quo for any period of time. Mori’s concept of “reinvention” is a norm. Thus, these Web sites know that being customer-centric is a constantly changing target. Over the past couple of years, for example, blogs became all important to establish ties with online visitors. Most recently, social networking with such sites as Twitter, FaceBook and LinkedIn, have become critical aspects of an online business model. Now another major revolution is evolving that promises to be bigger and even more lucrative than the Internet—mobile technology.

As a Morgan Stanley report (Meeker, 2009) concluded: “The Mobile Internet Cycle…is just starting. Winners in each cycle often create more market capitalization than in the last. New winners emerge, some incumbents survive – or thrive – while many past winners falter. Mobile technology offers a host of new services that can provide companies with opportunities to accelerate better business outcomes and a competitive advantage. Companies will need to determine which are best for their continued success.

Corporations are just beginning to understand the importance and impact of the mobile enterprise and its many applications. The latest mobile information and communication technology has the potential of providing organizations with the ability to attain significant gains in performance measurements, such as productivity and efficiency (Gebauer and Shaw, 2004). Many companies in a variety of industries are already successfully using mobile applications. For example, mobile technology provides a much more efficient method for social networking. Companies can have a greatly enhanced level of connectivity with their employees, customers and competitors. Mobile technology extends Internet communication, computing and consumer services to the wireless medium, which offers consumers greater ease of use in their personal life and at work (Jarvenpaa et al., 2003). Users can easily download applications with business news updates and product introductions, and the information is immediately accessible anytime and anyplace (Barnes, 2003). Because users are relying on organizations to supply this information, companies that use mobile technology have the ability to support activities throughout its value chain and enhance their competitive advantage. With the ability of two-way communication, business organizations can then get instantaneous feedback from customers regarding the information it supplies.

In the last decade, mobile technology has dramatically grown in size and capability (Atkins et al, 2006). The media content bandwidth increased from 1 to 3 gigabytes of data transmission combined with a number of different accessories, such as cameras, mp3 players and Web browsing. With the increase of thousands of apps, users have the ability of activities from gaming to business strategizing. PDAs have evolved from organizational tools to a combined global system for mobile communication/general packet radio service (GSM/GPR) that incorporates cellular coverage and allows for making phone calls, sending text messages and e-mails and accessing the Web.

The speed, ease and accessibility of communication allows companies with much faster and accurate market research and R&D to stay ahead of the competition and meet consumer needs by introducing product upgrades more quickly. Branding is enhanced, because consumers are more directly involved in the company’s decision making. This branding is one element of a larger marketing effort that is possible through the mobile technology. On PDA and cellular phone applications, present and potential customers can readily view ads and catalogues and be notified of any sales or other business information of interest. Marketing and advertising can be customized to target a specific geographical or niche audience (Barnes, 2003).

Mobile Technology Case Studies

An example of mobile enhancement is found in the development of location-based applications, which take advantage of the geographical data provided by GPS information systems. Logistics and transportation providers such as United Parcel Service and Federal Express use GPS applications to give workers information on avoiding traffic-congested areas, taking other routes, and finding the next location. These mobile enhancements are also incorporated into customer relationship strategies. The drivers and sales team not only have direct access to relevant information on the road and in their offices, they can also update relevant corporate data on inventory and pricing, plan personal schedules, and provide clients with more accurate and relevant information (Atkins et al, 2006). Atkins also explains how a restaurant owner is improving production and quality of service through these wireless mobile devices. The waiters can use a PDA with a Bluetooth or Wi-Fi to take orders, which saves them time from running back and forth to the kitchen for food preparations. The orders are displayed on an electronic board in the kitchen, which allows for personalized customer orders such as adding extra seasoning or eliminating sauces. When a recurrent customer comes in to eat, the wait staff can quickly bring up his/her individual needs on the PDA and make meal suggestions. In addition, to gain a competitive advantage, the electronic board is connected to a Web-enabled database that calculates stock usage of ingredients for automated ordering. The system controls the amount of wasted ingredients and keeps stocks within expiry dates.

As the mobile technology expands in the type and ability of services, corporations will increasingly find new ways for leveraging it. Pousttchi, Key and Wiedemann (2006) examined 30 case studies to identify objectives of mobile marketing campaigns. The authors found that mobile efforts are being used for 1) building brand awareness that focuses on the customers’ ability to recognize and recall a brand in purchase and consumption and that can be used for the launching of new products and services; 2) changing the perception of brand image; 3) enhancing sales promotions that stimulate faster or more extensive purchase of a product/service; 4) growing brand loyalty that aims to increase the consumers’ commitment to repurchase; 5) and building a customer database through surveys with the goal of collecting customer profiles of preferences and activity habits.

Conclusion

.As with any new technology, be it the transformation from hot to cold type in the printing presses, the introduction of the Internet and the WWW, the rise of social networking or the mobile enterprise, corporates are continually faced with an increasing number of different bells and whistles that they can use for their company strategy and marketing efforts for building a successful business model. They need to closely study their options to determine the options that best fit with overall goals and objectives for meeting their customers’ needs.

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